<![CDATA[This study evaluates side-channel vulnerabilities in hardware implementations of the cryptographic suite for Algebraic lattices (CRYSTALS)-Kyber key encapsulation mechanism (KEM) using correlation and differential power analysis (DPA) techniques. Unprotected field-programmable gate array (FPGA) implementations across all Kyber parameter sets were successfully compromised, revealing significant information leakage. Attack complexity scaled linearly with key size. Additive Boolean masking provided varying protection levels, with 4-bit masking offering a 100× security increase at notable performance cost. Performance characterization showed increased slice utilization and reduced maximum frequency for higher-order masking. A novel hybrid countermeasure combining higher-order masking with controlled time randomization enhanced protection against machine learning-based attacks. Comprehensive power trace analysis using 12-bit precision at 500 MS/s sampling rates was conducted. Statistical evaluation utilized Pearson's correlation and Welch's t-tests with a 0.8 threshold for key recovery. Real world validation in IoT, financial, and satellite scenarios highlighted practical post-quantum cryptography (PQC) deployment challenges. The study provides concrete design guidance for efficiently securing hardware Kyber implementations against side-channel attacks.]]>
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