Multi-Temporal Identification and Analysis of Land Surface Deformation with Land Use Land Cover in Makassar City

Suharman Hamzah (Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia)
Regita Faridatunisa Wijayanti (Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia)
Ira Mutiara Anjasmara (Department of Geomatics Engineering, Civil Engineering, Planning and Geosciences Faculty, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia)
Laode M Sabri (Department of Geodesy Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia)
Anas Osman (Department of Surveying Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, Omdurman Islamic University, Khartoum, Sudan and College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China)

INDONESIAN JOURNAL OF URBAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY
VOLUME 9, NUMBER 1, APRIL 2026

Rapid urbanization heightens the risk of land subsidence in Makassar City. Aim: This study analyzes and maps land surface deformation alongside Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) dynamics from 2020–2024. Methodology and Results by integrating multitemporal Sentinel-1 SAR (VV polarization) and supervised LULC classification from Landsat-8 on the Google Earth Engine platform. Annual LULC maps were produced using an SVM, yielding high accuracy (Kappa 0.893–0.988). Built-up land expanded mainly at the expense of vegetation and bare land. Deformation was inferred from temporal differences in VV backscatter (VV_diff); statistics were computed for each class. Negative VV_diff values were frequently observed in built-up and bareland areas, indicating subsidence. Significant interannual variability was observed in 2023-2024, particularly within the vegetation zones. Linear regression confirmed a strong negative deformation trend in built-up areas (slope −0.0123 dB/year). These results demonstrate a linkage between urban expansion and ground deformation. Conclusion, significance, and impact study: The approach provides a repeatable and cost-effective framework for continuous subsidence monitoring using open satellite data. GEE facilitates the open replication of workflows. The findings contribute to the field of urban planning and policy by identifying vulnerable zones, promoting risk-aware land allocation, infrastructure maintenance, and sustainable development methods for Indonesian coastal megacities and other rapidly expanding metropolitan areas.