<![CDATA[Carbon dioxide emissions are a strategic issue in environmental management because they are closely linked to economic activity, energy structure, demographic pressure, and the quality of human capital. This study examines the effects of GDP, population density, renewable energy consumption, and the human capital index on CO₂ emissions in Indonesia using an extended STIRPAT model. Annual time-series data for 1990–2021 are estimated with the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) approach, bounds testing, and an error correction model. The long-run results show that renewable energy consumption significantly reduces CO₂ emissions, while population density significantly increases them. GDP and the human capital index are statistically insignificant. In the short run, emission persistence and changes in GDP positively affect CO₂ emissions at the 5 percent significance level. A negative and significant error correction term confirms adjustment toward long-run equilibrium. Robustness checks based on the AIC and BIC criteria show that the negative effect of renewable energy remains consistent. The findings suggest that emission control in Indonesia is more effectively directed toward accelerating the energy transition and managing spatial-demographic pressure than toward aggregate economic growth or general educational improvement.]]>
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