<![CDATA[Manufacturing organisations increasingly require production systems that can improve operational efficiency while reducing process variation, waiting time, resource losses, and production errors. Lean manufacturing provides an established framework for addressing these challenges, yet empirical evidence remains limited regarding the simultaneous contribution of distinct lean practices to assembly-line efficiency. This study examines the effects of 5S, Kaizen, Just-in-Time, and Standardized Work on assembly-line efficiency using a quantitative explanatory design and a cross-sectional survey. Data were obtained from 262 employees involved in assembly-line operations, of which 260 valid responses were retained after data screening. The constructs were measured using a structured five-point Likert-scale questionnaire and analysed using partial least squares structural equation modelling. The measurement model demonstrated satisfactory reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity, while collinearity diagnostics indicated no substantive multicollinearity. The structural results show that all four lean practices positively and significantly contribute to assembly-line efficiency. Standardized Work demonstrates the strongest contribution, followed by 5S, Just-in-Time, and Kaizen. Collectively, the four practices explain 51.6% of the variance in assembly-line efficiency and demonstrate meaningful predictive relevance. The findings indicate that lean manufacturing should be operationalised as a multidimensional system rather than a homogeneous managerial construct. From a managerial perspective, assembly-line improvement should prioritise work standardisation while simultaneously strengthening workplace organisation, material-flow synchronisation, and continuous improvement to achieve more consistent and sustainable operational performance.]]>
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