<![CDATA[The relationship between formal justice systems and community-based justice remains critical to strengthening access to justice and legal empowerment across diverse socio-legal contexts. Penal culture, characterized by an emphasis on punishment, deterrence, and formal enforcement, may constrain community participation and limit restorative and participatory approaches to justice. This article examines how penal culture influences community legal empowerment and local justice practices through a comparative socio-legal analysis of Indonesia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, India, Spain, and Iran. The study focuses on three interrelated dimensions: legal education and awareness, community assistance and capacity building, and community-based mechanisms for preventing and resolving disputes. Using a comparative case-based approach, the study analyzes interactions between formal legal institutions and local justice practices, including customary dispute resolution, community mediation, legal aid, and paralegal initiatives. The findings reveal a common tension across the five jurisdictions between formal enforcement and community expectations of accessible, responsive, and legitimate justice, despite differences in legal traditions and socio-cultural contexts. Legal education, community assistance, and capacity building can strengthen community participation and improve the ability of local actors to navigate formal and informal justice mechanisms. The study argues that community legal empowerment requires a shift from predominantly punitive approaches toward participatory, restorative, and people-centred justice. By identifying common patterns and contextual differences, this comparative analysis contributes to socio-legal scholarship and provides practical insights for developing more inclusive community-based justice systems.]]>
