<![CDATA[Homelessness in urban settings is a complex and multifaceted social issue that challenges existing intervention frameworks. This study aims to examine social inclusion programs as instruments for social change, particularly in supporting homeless individuals toward independent and dignified living. The research addresses three central questions: (1) What are the root causes of homelessness? (2) How effective are traditional policy responses? (3) Can inclusive strategies offer sustainable, long-term solutions? This research employs a comparative case study approach in two countries, Indonesia and Malaysia, focusing on five field sites located in Medan and Penang. Using qualitative methods, data were collected through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and a documentary review of legal and policy frameworks relevant to homelessness and social protection. Findings indicate that the primary drivers of homelessness include family breakdown, economic destitution, poverty, and a lack of access to social protection systems. In Medan, responses are largely repressive, emphasizing public order enforcement, while in Penang, interventions are more compassionate but often short-term in nature. Neither city demonstrates a strong commitment to empowerment-based or comprehensive reintegration strategies. The study proposes a draft social inclusion framework that emphasizes multi-sectoral collaboration, demand-driven skills training, restoration of social relationships, and expanded access to essential services for urban vulnerable populations. These findings underscore the need to shift from control-oriented and emergency-focused responses toward long-term approaches grounded in empowerment, participation, and social justice.]]>
