<![CDATA[Partial shading conditions (PSC) create multiple peaks on the power–voltage (P–V) curve of photovoltaic (PV) systems, making it difficult for conventional Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithms to accurately identify the global maximum power point (GMPP). This study compares the performance of three MPPT techniques—Perturb and Observe (PNO), Global Maximum Power Point Detection (GMPPD), and the Four-Section (4S) method—by analyzing the electrical energy obtained during sudden changes in irradiance and shading. Experiments were conducted on two series-connected polycrystalline modules equipped with bypass diodes under three shading scenarios, with measurement data processed using an Arduino-based system. The novelty of this work lies in its experimental, energy-based comparison of PNO, GMPPD, and the recently developed 4S method under sequential irradiance transitions, providing a practical performance assessment that goes beyond instantaneous tracking evaluation commonly reported in previous studies. The results show that the 4S method significantly outperforms both PNO and GMPPD by providing faster tracking, lower computational demand, and superior accuracy under dynamic shading conditions. The total energy obtained using the 4S, GMPPD, and PNO methods was 4203.08 Wh, 3551.69 Wh, and 3091.60 Wh, respectively. These findings demonstrate that the 4S method offers the most efficient and reliable MPPT performance for PV systems operating under rapidly fluctuating environmental conditions.]]>
