<![CDATA[Lung cancer is the leading cause of death worldwide among all types of cancer. Early detection and accurate classification are essential to prevent disease progression and improve patient survival rates. One effective approach is the use of computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) systems based on medical imaging, particularly CT scans, which provide high-resolution and non-invasive visualization of lung structures, including blood vessels, soft tissues, and lesions or nodules. This study proposes a VGG16 CNN-based multiclass classification method for lung cancer. Unlike previous studies that primarily focus on binary classification, this research addresses four distinct classes of lung nodule CT images to better reflect complex clinical needs. The modified VGG16 architecture incorporates additional layers, including Flatten, Dense, and Dropout, along with the Softmax activation function, effectively improving classification performance and reducing overfitting risk. An ablation experiment was also conducted by replacing ReLU with LeakyReLU to address the potential “dying ReLU” issue. However, the results indicated that LeakyReLU did not provide significant improvement over the standard ReLU. The proposed model achieved an accuracy of 90.72%, precision of 91.5%, sensitivity of 89.25%, specificity of 96.76%, F1-score of 90%, and a low loss value of 0.37. Furthermore, the modified VGG16-CNN outperformed other CNN architectures, including ResNet50, EfficientNetB1, MobileNetV2, and AlexNet, in multiclass lung cancer image classification. The results demonstrate that the proposed method is effective for diagnosing lung nodules from CT scans and has the potential to support medical professionals in making accurate and timely diagnoses.]]>
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