<![CDATA[Urban traffic congestion in growing secondary cities is rarely caused by traffic volume alone; it is usually produced by the interaction between peak-hour demand, roadway geometry, roadside friction, motorcycle dominance, and land-use concentration. This study analyzes the temporal and spatial pattern of traffic density on Ahmad Yani Road, Kota Lama District, Kupang City, Indonesia. A quantitative descriptive design was applied through direct field observation at four observation points: the Gereja Katedral segment, Mutis Road intersection, Fatuleu Road intersection, and Flores Road intersection. Traffic counts, vehicle classification, mean travel speed, and operational traffic-density indices were collected during morning, midday, and afternoon periods on busy, normal, and low-activity days. The findings show that the highest traffic volume occurred at Flores Road during the busy-day afternoon period, reaching 3,269 vehicles per observation interval. The highest density index was observed at the Gereja Katedral segment during the normal-day morning period, reaching 79.11, followed by high-density conditions at the same segment in the afternoon and at the Mutis Road intersection. The results indicate that congestion on Ahmad Yani Road is temporally concentrated during morning and afternoon activity peaks and spatially concentrated around junctions, public-service corridors, commercial frontage, and access points. Roadside friction, including on-street parking, stopping vehicles, pedestrian movements, and entry-exit maneuvers from local roads, reduces effective road capacity and disrupts traffic flow. The study contributes empirical evidence for urban traffic management in Kupang and recommends integrated interventions involving parking control, peak-hour traffic regulation, roadside-friction reduction, pedestrian management, and improvement of public transport attractiveness.]]>
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