<![CDATA[Although mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) has become a widely recommended pedagogical approach in EFL higher education, how engagement profiles vary across developmental stages proposed by the iMOLA framework remains poorly understood. This cross-sectional study examined iMOLA Scale data from 250 EFL undergraduates at Universitas Borneo Tarakan using k-means cluster analysis to identify naturally occurring engagement profiles across six subscales (Understanding, Exploring, Integrating, Collaborating, Innovating, Creating). Three profiles emerged: an Early-Stage profile (n = 87, 34.8%) showing a steep decline from Understanding through upper stages; a Mid-Stage profile (n = 116, 46.4%) peaking at Integrating (M = 27.46) and dropping sharply thereafter; and an Advanced-Stage profile (n = 47, 18.8%) maintaining elevated scores across all six stages. Profile shapes are described from cluster centroids without inferential tests on the clustering variables, avoiding tautological comparison. Years of digital learning experience and number of mobile applications used did not significantly predict overall iMOLA engagement, while internet access quality showed a modest association with profile membership. Findings suggest that deeper MALL engagement is best understood as a multidimensional profile of MALL engagement rather than a binary outcome, with implications for diagnostic, profile-based curriculum design in border-region Indonesian EFL contexts.]]>
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