<![CDATA[Flooding in Kupang City has increasingly been associated with watershed degradation, urban expansion, reduced infiltration capacity, and the region’s semi-arid climatic characteristics, highlighting the need for sustainable flood-mitigation strategies. This study aimed to evaluate integrated Nature-based Solutions (NbS) for reducing flood risk and enhancing ecosystem services in the Kupang City watershed. A quantitative approach was applied using hydrological and system-dynamics modeling. Rainfall, land-cover, soil, population, and spatial data were analyzed using ArcGIS, HEC-HMS, Powersim Studio 10, and the InVEST model. The Oesapa Besar watershed was selected as the representative case. The results showed that HEC-HMS generated a 100-year return-period peak discharge of 325.80 m³/s, while calibration using the Snyder unit hydrograph and Green-Ampt infiltration method supported the reliability of the design-flood analysis. NbS interventions, including vegetation enhancement, green infrastructure, and retention ponds, reduced the Curve Number (CN) from 79.27 in 2015 to 76.60 in 2050 and decreased surface runoff from 71.95 mm to 71.45 mm. The InVEST analysis also indicated a more stable annual water yield and improved urban flood-mitigation capacity through enhanced infiltration and water retention. The study concluded that integrated NbS modeling provides an effective basis for sustainable, ecosystem-based watershed management and long-term flood resilience in Kupang City under continued urban development and future climate-related hydrological pressures.]]>
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