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All Journal Ghaitsa: Islamic Education Journal Al-Qarawiyyin: Jurnal Ilmu Ushuluddin
Indra Harahap
Universitas Islam Negeri Sumatera Utara, Indonesia
Religion Humanities Education Social Sciences Other

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The Problem of Determinism in Machine Learning: Ashʻarite and Muʻtazilite Free Will Perspectives Fauziah Hanum Siregar; Indra Harahap; Sholahuddin Ashani; Hashim Mohammed Adam Hasabalh
Al-Qarawiyyin: Jurnal Ilmu Ushuluddin Vol. 2 No. 2 (2026): Islamic Philosophy and Artificial Intelligence
Publisher : Yayasan Albahriah Jamiah Indonesia

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.64691/swkng003

Abstract

The problem of determinism in machine learning is becoming increasingly relevant as predictive analytics, recommendation systems, and algorithmic profiling model human behavior as predictable statistical patterns. Modern studies of the philosophy of technology generally address this issue within the framework of secular rationalism. At the same time, the contribution of classical Islamic theology to the critique of digital determinism remains limited. This study aims to analyze the problem of algorithmic determinism by reconstructing the Ashʻarite and Muʻtazilite concepts of free will and to assess their relevance as a critical framework for the metaphysical assumptions of machine learning. This research is a literature study with a philosophical-theological approach, grounded in a hermeneutic reading of primary kalām texts and a conceptual-critical analysis of contemporary machine learning literature. The results show that determinism in machine learning is both operational and epistemic, as algorithmic predictions rely on probabilistic correlations rather than final causality in human actions. The Ashʻarite perspective, through the concept of kasb, shows limited compatibility with digital predictive systems by distinguishing between the creation of actions and the subject’s moral responsibility. In contrast, the Muʻtazilite affirmed human rational autonomy and the causal efficacy of actions, thereby demonstrating the limitations of algorithmic deterministic claims in explaining ethical freedom. A comparison of the two suggests that machine learning does not eliminate free will but only enhances the capacity to predict behavior. This research confirms that classical kalām can serve as a critical framework for evaluating the metaphysical assumptions of contemporary digital technology.
The Implications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) for ‎Knowledge and Theology: An Epistemological and ‎Theological Critique Muhammad Gymnastiar Sani; Indra Harahap
GHAITSA : Islamic Education Journal Vol. 7 No. 3 (2026): July - October
Publisher : Yayasan Darusssalam Bengkulu

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.62159/ghaitsa.v7i3.2841

Abstract

The increasing use of generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) in academic and religious contexts has raised questions about how AI-generated outputs affect epistemic agency, knowledge evaluation, and the attribution of religious authority. However, existing scholarship remains fragmented across research on AI and cognition, digital religion and religious authority, and the emerging use of AI in Islamic knowledge contexts. This study addresses this gap through a critical integrative literature review with a qualitative interpretive design. The analysis examined approximately 15 contemporary peer-reviewed studies published primarily between 2021 and 2026, supplemented by selected foundational philosophical and Islamic theological sources. The literature was identified through Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect and analyzed thematically across four epistemological dimensions epistemic agency, cognitive offloading, epistemic justification, and attribution of authority and four Islamic-theological dimensions religious authority, scholarly transmission and accountability, lived religious knowledge, and the relationship between rational reflection and spiritual awareness. The findings indicate that generative AI can support information retrieval, organization, translation, and cognitive assistance, while over-reliance may reduce opportunities for independent verification and critical engagement. In Islamic contexts, the central issue concerns the attribution of authority to AI-generated information without adequate scholarly verification and contextual judgment. The study contributes a conceptual distinction between AI's technological capabilities and the epistemic or religious authority attributed to its outputs. The concept of Ulul Albab further provides a theological framework for understanding knowledge as involving both intellectual reflection (fikr) and spiritual awareness (dhikr).
Co-Authors Fauziah Hanum Siregar Hashim Mohammed Adam Hasabalh Muhammad Gymnastiar Sani Sholahuddin Ashani