<![CDATA[Background. The rapid integration of digital reading in higher education has changed how students engage with academic texts. Conflicting evidence remains on whether digital formats support reading comprehension as well as print. This gap matters given the growing reliance on screen-based learning and the cognitive demands of academic reading.. Purpose. This meta-analysis examined whether technology-enhanced reading improves comprehension compared to print among undergraduate students. The study addressed three aspects: (1) overall differences in comprehension between digital and print formats, (2) variations across pre-, during-, and post-COVID periods, and (3) the moderating role of text modality (text-only vs. multimodal). Method. Following PRISMA guidelines, this study synthesised data from 13 empirical studies published between 2017 and 2025, involving 1,029 undergraduate students across L1, L2, and EFL contexts. Effect sizes were calculated using Hedges' g within a random-effects model. Subgroup and meta-regression analyses were conducted to examine moderating variables. Results. The findings showed a small but statistically significant advantage for print reading over digital formats (g = 0.265, p < .001). This advantage was more pronounced in post-pandemic studies (g = 0.333) and in text-only materials (g = 0.291), while multimodal texts showed greater variability. Meta-regression indicated no significant change in effect size over time, and publication bias was minimal. Print reading consistently supported deeper comprehension, particularly for cognitively demanding academic texts. Conclusion. Print yields stronger comprehension than digital formats in undergraduate reading, especially for complex academic texts. This meta-analysis informs teaching practice by recommending print for high-stakes reading and metacognitive scaffolding when digital formats are used.]]>
