<![CDATA[This study synthesized evidence on instructional models for students’ spatial thinking in geography education and mapped publication patterns from 2021 to 2026. Following PRISMA 2020, a Systematic Literature Review included 15 empirical studies retrieved from Google Scholar, Garuda, and Crossref. Data were extracted using a review matrix and synthesized qualitatively; effect sizes were calculated when possible, but no meta-analysis was conducted. All ten controlled studies reported higher spatial-thinking scores in experimental groups (p ≤ .001); Cohen’s d ranged from 0.77 to 1.85 in eight calculable studies. Five classroom action research studies reported gains across cycles. Problem-Based Learning was most frequently studied (five studies), followed by Project-Based Learning and Discovery Learning (four each). Seven studies used digital geospatial tools, but their effect sizes were not consistently larger than those in other studies. Publications peaked in 2022; no eligible 2026 study was identified. Given varied designs and measures, no model was established as superior; findings offer a cautious basis for instructional planning.]]>
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