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Civil Engineering Journal
Published by C.E.J Publishing Group
ISSN : 24763055     EISSN : 24763055     DOI : -
Core Subject : Engineering,
Civil Engineering Journal is a multidisciplinary, an open-access, internationally double-blind peer -reviewed journal concerned with all aspects of civil engineering, which include but are not necessarily restricted to: Building Materials and Structures, Coastal and Harbor Engineering, Constructions Technology, Constructions Management, Road and Bridge Engineering, Renovation of Buildings, Earthquake Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering, Highway Engineering, Hydraulic and Hydraulic Structures, Structural Engineering, Surveying and Geo-Spatial Engineering, Transportation Engineering, Tunnel Engineering, Urban Engineering and Economy, Water Resources Engineering, Urban Drainage.
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Articles 24 Documents
Search results for , issue "Vol. 12 No. 2 (2026): February" : 24 Documents clear
A Wastewater Strength Indicator for Estimating the Energy Performance and Recovery Potential in WWTPs Borisov, Boyan; Ribarova, Irina; Valchev, Dobril; Radovanov, Viden; Lazarova, Svetlana; Kostova, Irina
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 12 No. 2 (2026): February
Publisher : Salehan Institute of Higher Education

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.28991/CEJ-2026-012-02-06

Abstract

This study aims to propose a practical indicator that enables quick and reliable evaluation of the relationship between influent characteristics and energy performance and recovery in municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). A composite Wastewater Strength Indicator (WWSI) was developed, integrating wastewater dilution and pollutant load into a single metric. Theoretical correlations were established through mathematical estimation and verified using case studies of six WWTPs in Bulgaria based on operational data from 2020–2022. WWSI correlates strongly with both specific energy consumption (kWh/kg COD removed) and electrical energy recovery rate. WWTPs with a WWSI below 0.25 perform unsatisfactory, exhibiting specific energy consumption levels above 2.0 kWh/kg removed COD, whereas those with a WWSI above 0.35 demonstrate higher energy efficiency, with specific consumption below 1.0 kWh/kg removed COD. The treatment of low-strength wastewater leads to inherent energy inefficiencies that are difficult to overcome through sludge digestion and cogeneration alone. Despite sludge calorific values ranging from 11.5 to 19.4 MJ/kg, the energy recovery potential in the studied WWTPs remained below 35%, confirming that energy neutrality is challenging for diluted wastewater. A conversion coefficient of 0.039 kWh/MJ was introduced to facilitate rapid estimation of potential electrical recovery from sludge calorific values. The proposed WWSI provides a simple yet effective tool for benchmarking WWTPs and supports future upgrades toward energy-neutral wastewater management.
Scour Morphology Comparison Around Oblong Bridge Pier: Clear-Water and Live-Bed Flow Conditions Darajat, Achmad Rafi’ud; Kironoto, Bambang A.; Istiarto
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 12 No. 2 (2026): February
Publisher : Salehan Institute of Higher Education

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.28991/CEJ-2026-012-02-023

Abstract

Bridge pier scour is a significant contributor to structural instability in riverine infrastructure, particularly in sediment-laden tropical rivers. Streamlined shapes such as oblong piers generally produce smaller scour depths than bluff-body piers, offering potential safety advantages. However, the morphological evolution of scour under different sediment-transport regimes and its implications for structural stability remain insufficiently documented. This study experimentally compares clear-water (CW) and live-bed (LB) scour around an oblong pier, with emphasis on equilibrium depth, temporal development, three-dimensional morphology, velocity structure, and safety relevance. Flume tests were performed using a 5-cm × 10-cm oblong pier under steady subcritical flow (Q = 50 L/s, h = 10 cm, d50 = 2.21 mm, Fr < 1), with CW simulated by eliminating upstream sediment supply and LB by continuous sediment recirculation. Velocity measurements using an Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV) were conducted at equilibrium scour geometry to characterize flow structures. Results show CW scour reached a deeper equilibrium (z/D = 1.70), developed 36.4% faster (T* = 666 min) than LB (z/D = 1.52, T* = 909 min). CW formed a symmetric, steep-walled scour hole with 14.1% greater volume and 15.6% wider planform area, creating an immediate risk of vertical undermining. LB produced a shallower, more elongated scour with partial downstream backfilling, leading to gradual longitudinal undermining and slower foundation settlement. Velocity measurements revealed stronger vertical and lateral fluctuations under LB, explaining its more irregular scour morphology. Although the reduced scour depth confirms previous findings for streamlined piers, the elongated downstream scour and partial backfilling under LB provide new insights for countermeasure design. Among the tested predictors, Sheppard's Equation performed best with 8% (CW) and 3% (LB) deviations. These findings confirm that streamlined oblong piers reduce the maximum scour depth compared with circular shapes, but reveal contrasting mechanisms: CW promotes rapid, concentrated erosion, whereas LB induces slower, more widespread scour. The results emphasize that countermeasure design must explicitly account for the sediment-transport regime to ensure long-term foundation stability.
Comprehensive Characterization of Fly Ash as a Sustainable Supplementary Cementitious Material Syahyadi, Rizal; Saidi, Taufiq; Hasan, Muttaqin; Akhyar; Fauzi, Amir; Rachman, Aulia
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 12 No. 2 (2026): February
Publisher : Salehan Institute of Higher Education

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.28991/CEJ-2026-012-02-015

Abstract

Sustainable development seeks to meet present needs without harming future generations. Rising energy demand from coal-fired power plants increases CO₂ emissions and produces fly ash (FA). The cement industry, responsible for about 7% of global CO₂ emissions, also consumes large amounts of energy. Incorporating FA as a partial or complete substitute for cement in concrete provided both environmental and performance advantages. Hence, this study focused on exploring the potential of FA from Nagan Raya (FANR) as a cementitious material for cement replacement. FANR was analyzed using XRF, XRD, FTIR, SEM, and EDS. It mainly contained SiO₂ (48.04%), Al₂O₃ (27.62%), and Fe₂O₃ (11.78%), meeting ASTM Class F fly ash standards. XRD analysis confirmed the presence of amorphous phases along with quartz and mullite crystals. FTIR showed silicate hydration products (C–S–H and C–A–H gels) at different water–cement ratios. SEM showed spherical particles with rough surfaces, which enhance reactivity but also increase water absorption and reduce workability. EDS confirmed silicate and aluminosilicate compositions. These results highlight FANR’s potential as a sustainable cement replacement, despite workability issues.
Six Sigma Based Management Approach to Minimize Material Losses in Building Construction Chancasanampa Narvaez, Kevyn Wyll; Cueva Villaverde, Jhon Brayam; Delzo Chihuan , Elizabeth; Arteaga Rojas, Jhonatan Seeler A.
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 12 No. 2 (2026): February
Publisher : Salehan Institute of Higher Education

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.28991/CEJ-2026-012-02-017

Abstract

This study aims to reduce material variability, minimize losses, and improve construction performance in multifamily building projects by applying the Six Sigma DMAIC methodology in a Peruvian regional context. The research was conducted in Huancayo using a multifamily structure as a reference to compare theoretical material consumption with actual quantities registered on site. The methodological approach combined statistical analysis with Minitab, logistics modelling with Arena Simulation, data processing through Excel and Power Query, and real-time monitoring using Google Colab connected to Telegram. The analysis identified overconsumption patterns between six and nine percent in concrete, steel, and bricks, which contributed to an estimated delay of about thirty days. After implementing the DMAIC stages, cost deviations were reduced to ten percent or less, schedule performance improved by twelve percent, and operational efficiency reached ninety percent, with ninety-five percent of deliveries made on time. The study introduces a hybrid digital control framework that links Telegram with Google Colab and Power BI, allowing real-time tracking of key performance indicators in projects with limited budgets and low technology adoption. The findings provide one of the first documented applications of Six Sigma for material control in regional Peruvian construction and contribute to the adaptation of Lean Six Sigma principles to the Latin American context by offering practical, field-based evidence of their effectiveness.
Contribution of Acacia mangium Root Systems to Slope Stability Improvement Maneekeaw, Siriphat; Voottipruex, Panich; Kongsomsaksakul, Sirisak; Sramoon, Wilailak; Mahannopkul, Krairoj
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 12 No. 2 (2026): February
Publisher : Salehan Institute of Higher Education

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.28991/CEJ-2026-012-02-010

Abstract

This study explores the bioengineering potential of Acacia mangium root systems in enhancing the shear strength of lateritic soil under both saturated and unsaturated conditions. Seedlings were cultivated in cylindrical containers for 12 months to monitor root growth and investigate its relationship with key geotechnical parameters. Root development was classified into three distinct phases: root acceleration (months 1–3), stem acceleration (months 4–8), and growth phase (months 9–12). A significant dry root biomass increase was observed, exhibiting a strong linear correlation with peak shear strength. Laboratory shear tests indicated that unreinforced soil in saturated conditions had a cohesion of 1.90 kPa and an internal friction angle of 27.64°. In contrast, cohesion increased to 3.55 kPa in unsaturated conditions and the internal friction angle to 38.94°. In comparison, root-reinforced soils demonstrated substantially improved shear strength. Under unsaturated conditions, cohesion and internal friction angle reached 9.92 kPa and 41.58°, respectively, while in saturated conditions, values increased to 6.12 kPa and 31.29°. Slope stability analysis using Slope/W software revealed that the unreinforced slope had a Factor of Safety (FS) of 1.043, indicating marginal stability. However, with A. mangium root reinforcement, the FS increased to 1.518, exceeding the commonly accepted safety threshold of 1.5. These results highlight the effectiveness of A. mangium root systems in improving slope stability through mechanical reinforcement, increased soil cohesion, and redistribution of shear stresses within the soil matrix.
Effect of Silica Modulus on Concrete Maturity at Different Curing Temperatures Ibrahim, Eman Kh.; Ahmed, Sofyan Y.; Salih, Oday Asal
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 12 No. 2 (2026): February
Publisher : Salehan Institute of Higher Education

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.28991/CEJ-2026-012-02-020

Abstract

The variation in early-age strength development of concrete mixes containing locally produced OPC, cured at different temperatures throughout the seasons, has motivated many researchers to investigate this issue. This study analyzed how differences in the constituents of locally sourced OPC, particularly the silica modulus, affect strength development and its impact on concrete maturity at various temperatures. Concrete maturity was calculated using strength development over time to determine an equivalent age required to achieve a specific strength at a standard temperature. The equivalent age is a vital factor for determining the appropriate time to remove formwork at construction sites or to open roads to traffic. The study experimentally evaluated three different proportions of OPC constituents, producing three silica modulus (S.M.) values of 2.4, 2.7, and 3.0. It compared the effect of S.M. variation for two cement contents by assessing two groups of concrete with compressive strengths of 20 N/mm² and 35 N/mm², cured at temperatures of 7, 20, and 35 °C. The results revealed that strength increased with increasing curing temperature at all ages, while the rate of strength development decreased as S.M. increased for both strength levels. In contrast, the activation energy of concrete increased with increasing S.M., with the greatest increase observed in concrete with the higher cement content (35 N/mm²). The maturity function results, expressed in terms of equivalent age for concrete cured at non-standard temperatures (7 and 35 °C), showed that equivalent age was influenced by variations in the OPC S.M., with the effect being more pronounced at S.M. = 2.4 compared with S.M. values of 2.7 and 3.0.
Functional Verification of a Stainless Steel Reference Block for Calibration of Industrial Ultrasonic Test System Vera, Jorge; Caballero, Luis; Taboada, Martín; Aguilar, Luis; Briceño, Braulio; Azabache, Eduardo
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 12 No. 2 (2026): February
Publisher : Salehan Institute of Higher Education

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.28991/CEJ-2026-012-02-09

Abstract

In the construction and assembly of metal structures, ultrasonic testing constitutes a pillar for the guarantee of structural integrity. This study aimed to develop and experimentally validate a semi-cylindrical reference block, optimized for the ultrasonic inspection of welds in austenitic stainless steels under the AWS D1.6 code. Unlike conventional devices, this proposal integrates three functional zones into a unified body. Methodologically, the acoustic properties of velocity and attenuation coefficient were characterized using the pulse-echo technique with 2.25 and 5.0 MHz transducers, validating the results through analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Pearson correlation. The findings revealed a statistically significant influence of frequency on the acoustic properties of the material. Functionally, experimental tests demonstrated that the geometric arrangement of three integrated references allows for the efficient construction of Distance-Amplitude Correction (DAC) curves and direct angular verification, overcoming the logistical limitations of conventional prismatic blocks. The main novelty of the device lies in its capacity to unify the functions of sensitivity, resolution, and distance calibration into a single body of acoustically equivalent material, eliminating the need for complex correction factors and ensuring greater precision in industrial inspection.
Structural Behavior of Beam-Column Connection Using Post-Installed Steel and GFRP Rebars Mutashar, Borkan M.; Salih, Oday Asal; Kasim , Suhaib Y.
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 12 No. 2 (2026): February
Publisher : Salehan Institute of Higher Education

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.28991/CEJ-2026-012-02-08

Abstract

This study investigates the performance of steel and GFRP bars as post-installed reinforcement for retrofitting concrete infrastructure through experimental evaluation of the structural performance of the beam-column connection specimens. Three groups of concrete specimens were tested under flexural loading to investigate the influence of bar diameter, bar material (Steel vs. GFRP), and installation method on failure modes, load-deflection curves, and bond strength. The main failure mode at the connections was concrete breakout; however, specimens reinforced with small-diameter post-installed bars tended to fail by bar pullout. The load capacity increases by 9.64% and 12.5% when the diameter of the post-installed GFRP bar increases from 12 to 16 mm and 20 mm, respectively, and the deflection at the midspan of the beam decreases by 17.9% and 33.6% for 16 and 20 mm bars. Specimens with cast-installed reinforcements showed comparable load capacity to post-installed specimens but exhibited lower displacements. Increasing bar diameter reduced bond strength, and GFRP bars showed lower bond strength than steel bars. Overall, the results highlight the potential of GFRP bars as reliable post-installed reinforcement for strengthening critical concrete connections.
A Correlated Random-Field Ising Model for Pore-Scale Hysteresis in Soil-Water Characteristic Curves Gómez Azuero, Angela Viviana; Salazar Montenegro, Juan Carlos
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 12 No. 2 (2026): February
Publisher : Salehan Institute of Higher Education

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.28991/CEJ-2026-012-02-02

Abstract

The soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC) plays a central role in the behavior of unsaturated soils, yet explaining its hysteresis directly from pore-scale mechanisms remains challenging. The objective of this study is to investigate how pore-size heterogeneity, spatial correlations, and cooperative dynamics contribute to hysteresis in SWCCs. In this study, a correlated Random-Field Ising Model (RFIM) combined with Monte Carlo simulations is developed to represent the pore space as a two-dimensional lattice with a bimodal distribution of pore volumes and a spatially correlated disorder field. Drainage processes are simulated without parametric curve fitting, enabling direct analysis of pore-scale switching dynamics. The results show that macropore fraction, pore-size heterogeneity, and the activation parameter \beta exert a strong control on drainage behavior. Low \beta values produce smooth and nearly reversible drainage, whereas higher \beta stabilizes metastable pore configurations and yields abrupt transitions accompanied by hysteresis. The divergence between number-based and volume-based saturation serves as a useful indicator of size-selective drainage and cooperative pore-scale events. The novelty of this work lies in providing a physically grounded and statistically dynamics to macroscopic hysteresis in SWCCs, offering insights beyond traditional phenomenological or uncorrelated pore-network approaches.
Effect of Fly Ash and Nano-Silica Fume on Soft Clay: Atterberg Limits, MDD, and OMC Jumaa, Ruqaya M.; Saeed, Khitam A.; Al-Jaberi, Layth A.
Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 12 No. 2 (2026): February
Publisher : Salehan Institute of Higher Education

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.28991/CEJ-2026-012-02-012

Abstract

To improve the geotechnical properties of soft clay soil, this study compares and contrasts two types of micro and nano stabilizing additives: fly ash and nano-silica fume. Treatments with fly ash and nano-silica fume were applied to soft clay samples from Basra, Iraq, at varying fly ash concentrations. The samples were then subjected to the treatments. The ASTM requirements were adhered to in the laboratory tests conducted to investigate changes in plasticity characteristics, maximum dry density, and optimum moisture content (OMC). In the course of this research, Atterberg limits and standard compaction tests were undertaken. In accordance with the findings, fly ash reduces MDD (maximum dry density) by increasing the plastic limit and OMC while simultaneously decreasing the liquid limit and plasticity index. On the other hand, nano-silica fume enhances MDD, decreases OMC and the plastic limit, and increases the plasticity index and the liquid limit. The flocculation and dilution of clay particles are both promoted by fly ash, but the significant reactivity of nano-silica fume increases water adsorption and pore filling. The differences in particle size, specific surface area, and interaction mechanisms explain the observed divergent tendencies. Micro- and nanosized additives added to local soft clay at the same dosage were compared and contrasted in this study. This comparative analysis aims to help select the most effective stabilizing agents that either increase soil plasticity or improve compaction properties. The use of such an approach is a new methodological contribution.

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