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All Journal Jurnal Litbang Sukowati : Media Penelitian dan Pengembangan Jurnal Keluarga Berencana Jurnal Ekonomi Indonesia Berdikari : Jurnal Ekonomi dan Statistik Indonesia Jurnal Ketenagakerjaan Prosiding Seminar Nasional Official Statistics Journal of Central Banking Law and Institutions PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON DATA SCIENCE AND OFFICIAL STATISTICS
Weni Lidya Sukma
BPS-Statistics Indonesia
Humanities Computer Science & IT Decision Sciences, Operations Research & Management Economics, Econometrics & Finance Education Environmental Science Health Professions Law, Crime, Criminology & Criminal Justice Public Health Social Sciences

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RETURNS TO EDUCATION AND WAGE DISTRIBUTION IN INDONESIA: A COMPARISON ACROSS GENDER GROUPS Kadir Kadir; Weni Lidya Sukma
Jurnal Litbang Sukowati : Media Penelitian dan Pengembangan Vol 2 No 2 (2019): Vol. 2 No. 2, Mei 2019
Publisher : Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah, Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kabupaten Sragen

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | Full PDF (753.518 KB) | DOI: 10.32630/sukowati.v2i2.90

Abstract

Abstract. This study is aimed to estimate the returns to education in Indonesia not only at the mean but also across the whole distribution by implementing quantile regression techniques and doing a comparison between gender groups. It also relates the estimation results to the two channels through which education affects the wages inequality, i.e., between-and within-educational-levels earning differentials. We found that education has a positive and significant impact on wage distribution implying that increasing the level of education could shift the wages distribution to the right. In general, the estimates of the returns to education for the female is higher than male. For each gender group, our study also confirms the presence of both the between-groups wages inequality associated with the difference in educational levels among individuals and the within-groups wages inequality caused by the difference in ability among individuals in the same level of education. Our findings suggest that promoting the same level of education for all, particularly tertiary education, could bring down the wages inequality although at the same time the inequality may still exist due to the difference in unobserved characteristic among individuals at the same level of education.
Employment Formalization in Indonesia: Role of Parents’ Employment Mobility Toward Children’s Employment Mobility Kadir Ruslan; Weni Lidya Sukma
Jurnal Ekonomi Dan Statistik Indonesia Vol 3 No 1 (2023): Berdikari: Jurnal Ekonomi dan Statistik Indonesia (JESI)
Publisher : Future Science

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.11594/jesi.03.01.05

Abstract

This study aims to analyze the impact of parents’ employment status mobility on the children’s employment status mobility. In doing so, we applied a two-stage multinomial logistic regression model. In this research, employment status mobility refers to a mobility status from informal to formal jobs and vice versa. Using data from the Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS) for the period 2007 and 2014, the profile of the Indonesian workforce was dominated by stayers. The estimation results of multinomial logistic regression indicate that only fathers’ employment status mobility has a significant effect on the children’s employment status mobility, where fathers who are stayers and experiencing upward mobility will provide greater opportunities for their children to be stayers and fewer opportunities to experience downward mobility. Moreover, the employment status mobility of mothers does not have a significant impact on their children’s employment mobility. Our study points out the pivotal role of fathers in influencing employment formalization in Indonesia. Our findings could be valuable inputs for policy-making regarding employment formalization in Indonesia.
KEAHLIAN ATAU KONDISI KELUARGA, MANAKAH YANG LEBIH BERPENGARUH PADA CAPAIAN PEKERJAAN LANSIA? Armelia Zukma Kumala; Weni Lidya Sukma
Jurnal Keluarga Berencana Vol. 8 No. 1 (2023): Jurnal Keluarga Berencana
Publisher : Badan Kependudukan Dan Keluarga Berencana Nasional

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | Full PDF (1092.556 KB) | DOI: 10.37306/kkb.v8i1.135

Abstract

Tingginya persentase lansia di Indonesia menjadi tantangan baru dalam peningkatan kesejahteraan penduduk di era datangnya penuaan penduduk. Lansia yang aktif, sehat, dan produktif di pasar tenaga kerja dapat memberikan keuntungan dalam memetik bonus demografi kedua bagi Indonesia. Faktor yang memengaruhi lansia untuk bekerja dan profil pekerjaan lansia menjadi isu yang strategis untuk dikaji. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh dari keahlian dan kondisi keluarga terhadap capaian pekerjaan penduduk lansia Indonesia dengan menggunakan data Sakernas Agustus 2020. Keahlian diukur melalui latar belakang pendidikan dan pengalaman mengikuti pelatihan sedangkan kondisi keluarga diukur dari proporsi kebekerjaan dalam rumah tangga. Pemodelan menggunakan regresi logistik multinomial menunjukkan bahwa penduduk lansia yang memiliki pendidikan tinggi dan pengalaman mengikuti pelatihan mampu meningkatkan peluang penduduk lansia untuk bekerja meski belum menjamin penduduk lansia mendapat pekerjaan yang layak, yaitu pekerjaan formal. Rasio kebekerjaan yang tinggi dalam rumah tangga juga mendorong lansia untuk tetap bekerja. Dukungan dari pemerintah melalui program khusus yang mendorong partisipasi kerja lansia sehingga menjadi lebih produktif diperlukan seperti program belajar sepanjang hayat (long life learning).
Pengaruh Karakteristik Sosiodemografi Kepala Rumah Tangga dan Anak Terhadap Kecenderungan Anak Terlibat dalam Pekerjaan Berbahaya di Sektor Pertanian: Analisis Data SAKERNAS Sukma, Weni Lidya; Kadir, Kadir
Seminar Nasional Official Statistics Vol 2023 No 1 (2023): Seminar Nasional Official Statistics 2023
Publisher : Politeknik Statistika STIS

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.34123/semnasoffstat.v2023i1.1586

Abstract

In the agricultural sector, children may be involved in hazardous work that requires physical labor and long hours. Our study used SAKERNAS’s data conducted in August 2022 to examine the effect of both household heads’ and children’s sociodemographic characteristics on the child probability working in agricultural hazardous jobs. Our study confirms the importance of household heads' level in preventing children from working in agriculture and/engaging in hazardous job activities. The results of multinomial logistic regression using marginal effects pointed out that the education level of household heads have a positive impact on reducing the likelihood of child labor in agriculture and engagement of children in hazardous agricultural jobs. We also found the probability of children being child labour in agriculture and get involved in hazardous jobs is larger in female-head household compared to male-head household. In addition, increasing educational participation among children can also reduce the likelihood of child labor.
DIGITAL ECONOMY CHALLENGE: HIDDEN EXPLOITATION OF CHILD LABOUR THROUGH THE USE OF DIGITAL DEVICES Sukma, Weni Lidya; Ruslan, Kadir
Journal of Central Banking Law and Institutions Vol. 4 No. 2 (2025)
Publisher : Bank Indonesia

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.21098/jcli.v4i2.252

Abstract

This study focuses on child labour working hours for children aged 5-14, utilising National Labor Force Survey (Sakernas) data collected in August 2023. Specifically, it examines the impact ofthe use of digital devices on the working hours for child labourers. Applying ordinary least squares (OLS) regression to the data, our findings indicate that digital tools increase working hours by 1.12 per week, even after controlling for various explanatory variables. This effect is particularly pronounced for child workers aged 12-14. Factors such as low levels of education and employment in the service sector were identified as contributors to extended working hours for child labour. However, digital tools and the internet have become essential for everyone, including children. Therefore, reducing child labour and working hours requires a multifaceted approach involving strengthening regulations, restoring disrupted children’s education, and enhancing overall well-being.
Do the sticky floor and glass ceiling phenomena persist in the Indonesian labour force after the pandemic? Ruslan, Kadir; Sukma, Weni Lidya
Jurnal Ikatan Sarjana Ekonomi Indonesia Vol 14 No 2 (2025): August
Publisher : Jurnal Ekonomi Indonesia

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.52813/jei.v14i2.567

Abstract

Our study aims to examine the evolution of gender wage gaps and their decomposition by employment status in Indonesia during the pre-pandemic, pandemic, and post-pandemic periods, using SAKERNAS data from 2018 to 2023. The OLS and RIF-OLS regression estimations reveal that gender wage gaps remained substantial throughout these periods. On average, female employees earned about 30 percent less than their male counterparts, which decreased to 23 percent after controlling for other wage-related characteristics. Notably, the gap is particularly pronounced among underemployed and low-paid workers, where female employees earn approximately 40 percent to 50 percent less than their male counterparts. Decomposition results using Blinder-Oaxaca and RIF-Oaxaca methods, both at the mean and across the wage distribution, pointed out that most of the gap is due to unexplained factors, confirming the persistence of the sticky floor and glass ceiling phenomena. This suggests ongoing negative discrimination against female employees in the Indonesian labor market. Among observable characteristics, working experience, tenure, and working hours significantly contributed to the wage gap, with women generally lagging behind men in these areas. However, women’s higher educational attainment, greater participation in the formal sector, access to training, and prevalence in white-collar jobs significantly helped reduce the wage gaps.
Decomposition of Post-Pandemic Gender Wage Gaps in Indonesia: an Analysis Across the Wage Distribution Ruslan, Kadir; Sukma, Weni Lidya
Jurnal Ketenagakerjaan Vol 20 No 2 (2025)
Publisher : Pusat Pengembangan Kebijakan Ketenagakerjaan Kementerian Ketenagakerjaan Republik Indonesia

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.47198/jnaker.v20i2.517

Abstract

This study examines post-pandemic gender wage gaps in Indonesia using SAKERNAS data from 2018 to 2023. OLS and RIF-OLS regression results indicate that gender wage gaps widened post-pandemic, with female employees earning 30 percent less than their male counterparts on average, narrowing to 23 percent after controlling for wage-related characteristics. The gap is most pronounced among low-paid workers, where women earned 40 to 50 percent less than men. Decomposition analysis across the wage distribution reveals that the majority of the gap is driven by unexplained factors, reinforcing the persistence of the "sticky floor" and "glass ceiling" effects, indicative of on going gender discrimination in the labor market. While factors such as lower work experience, tenure, and working hours contributed to the gap, women's higher educational attainment, increased formal sector participation, access to training, and representation in white-collar jobs helped mitigate it.
Did the Digital Push Last? E-Commerce and Rural Agricultural Earnings in Indonesia During and After COVID-19, Evidence from Sakernas Ruslan, Kadir; Sukma, Weni Lidya
Proceedings of The International Conference on Data Science and Official Statistics Vol. 2025 No. 1 (2025): Proceedings of 2025 International Conference on Data Science and Official St
Publisher : Politeknik Statistika STIS

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.34123/icdsos.v2025i1.623

Abstract

This paper examines the impact of e-commerce adoption on earnings and incomedistribution among rural agricultural employers in Indonesia, both during and after the COVID19 pandemic. Using microdata from the National Labour Force Survey/Sakernas (2018–2024)and applying probit, OLS, Propensity Score Matching, and quantile regression models, weidentify the determinants of adoption and its impact on earnings. Adoption was strongly drivenby education, training, and enterprise characteristics, while older age and reliance on unpaidhousehold labor constrained uptake. Results show that e-commerce adopters earned substantiallyhigher than non-adopters (more than 30 percent) both during and after the pandemic, confirmingsustained income gains beyond the crisis. Quantile regressions reveal that the lowest-incomeemployers benefited most, with earnings gains exceeding 50 percent at the bottom quantileduring the pandemic. Although relative advantages shifted toward higher earners after thepandemic, large and significant effects remained for the lowest-income groups. These findingsindicate that e-commerce not only enhances market access but also contributes to improvingincome distribution. Policy interventions to strengthen digital literacy, rural infrastructure, andfinancial access are essential to preserve its inclusive role and ensure that vulnerable agriculturalemployers continue to benefit disproportionately.
Gendered E-commerce adoption among rural Indonesian entrepreneurs: determinants and income impact Weni Lidya Sukma; Kadir Ruslan
Jurnal Ikatan Sarjana Ekonomi Indonesia Vol 15 No 1 (2026): April 2026
Publisher : Jurnal Ekonomi Indonesia

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar

Abstract

This study investigates gender differences in e-commerce adoption among rural entrepreneurs in Indonesia using nationally representative labor force survey data (Sakernas). It examines the factors that drive adoption among rural men and women and the extent to which adoption improves earnings, as well as how these effects vary by gender and across the income distribution. Probit models and gender-disaggregated income regressions are applied to identify adoption determinants and quantify income impacts. Results show that education and training strongly promote digital uptake, while age, marital status, and household structure constrain participation—particularly for women. E-commerce adoption significantly increases earnings, with male adopters gaining an average 30.8 percent income premium and female adopters 17.5 percent. Quantile regression reveals that low-income men benefit disproportionately, suggesting an equalizing role of digital platforms. Propensity Score Matching confirms a causal effect for male adopters earn approximately IDR 1 million more per week, while women earn IDR 500,000 more. These findings highlight persistent gender gaps in both access and returns, underscoring the need for gender-sensitive digital inclusion policies that address capability deficits and structural barriers limiting women’s full participation in the digital economy.
Co-Authors Armelia Zukma Kumala Kadir Kadir Kadir Kadir Kadir Ruslan Kadir Ruslan Ruslan, Kadir