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All Journal Legalis : Journal of Law Review
Supangat, Ajis
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Law, Crime, Criminology & Criminal Justice

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Legal Design and Cyber Resilience: A Comparative Study of Cybersecurity Frameworks for Critical Infrastructure in Five Jurisdictions Supangat, Ajis; Taufiqurokhman
Legalis : Journal of Law Review Vol. 3 No. 4 (2025): October 2025
Publisher : Indonesian Scientific Publication

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.61978/legalis.v3i4.1121

Abstract

Cyber threats targeting critical infrastructure, particularly Operational Technology (OT) and Industrial Control Systems (ICS), have escalated globally in both frequency and severity, prompting nations to implement legal frameworks mandating risk management and incident reporting. This study provides a comparative analysis of cybersecurity regulations across five jurisdictions: the European Union, United States, Australia, Singapore, and Indonesia. It aims to evaluate how legal design, reporting obligations, and institutional coordination influence cyber risk outcomes. Using panel data from 2020 to 2025, this research employs Difference-in-Differences and fixed effects models to assess the relationship between regulatory adoption and indicators such as OT ransomware activity and ICS threat block rates. Legal variables include the implementation status of NIS2, CIRCIA, SOCI/SLACIP, the Cybersecurity Act (SG), and Perpres 82/2022 (ID). Outcome data are drawn from Dragos and Kaspersky ICS-CERT reports. The results indicate that jurisdictions with rapid reporting mandates (12–24h), standardized frameworks (NIST CSF), and strong institutional oversight demonstrate improved cyber resilience. For example, ransomware trends decline in Australia and the EU post-regulation, while malicious block rates increase in Singapore and Indonesia. However, compliance burdens and fragmented oversight reduce regulatory efficacy, especially in less coordinated systems like the US. The study concludes that successful cybersecurity governance depends on the alignment of legal mandates, operational feasibility, and institutional capability. For developing countries like Indonesia, enhancing cross-sector CSIRT capacity, aligning with global standards, and streamlining regulatory requirements are critical for improving national cyber resilience.
Digital Contracts and Jurisdiction in Global E-Commerce: Legal Standards, Clause Validity, and Enforcement Across Borders Supangat, Ajis; Nasution, Emmi Rahmiwita; Sara, Rineke
Legalis : Journal of Law Review Vol. 2 No. 4 (2024): October 2024
Publisher : Indonesian Scientific Publication

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.61978/legalis.v2i4.1124

Abstract

The exponential rise of cross-border e-commerce has presented critical legal challenges regarding jurisdiction, applicable law, and enforcement of consumer disputes. This article aims to provide a comparative and doctrinal analysis of how different jurisdictions primarily the European Union, United States, ASEAN, and Indonesia approach these challenges through domestic legislation, regional instruments, and global conventions. The research employs doctrinal comparative legal methods, analyzing legal instruments such as the Brussels I Recast, Rome I and II Regulations, the Hague Conventions (2005 and 2019), and the New York Convention. Key case law including Pammer, Emrek, Schrems, and Nguyen is examined to highlight judicial interpretations. The analysis includes ASEAN’s regional cooperation frameworks and Indonesia’s regulatory evolution. The results show significant divergence in jurisdictional tests (e.g., the EU’s targeting test vs. the US’s contractual autonomy), clause validity standards (clickwrap vs. browsewrap), and enforcement mechanisms. While the EU offers a structured consumer protection regime, the US emphasizes freedom of contract. ASEAN's soft-law frameworks and Indonesia’s domestic regulations show promise but face implementation and enforcement challenges. The Hague Judgments Convention remains underutilized, while arbitration via the New York Convention proves more reliable for cross-border enforcement. The study concludes that despite substantial progress in developing international legal tools, their effectiveness is undermined by fragmented implementation and regulatory divergence. Harmonization efforts must prioritize enforceable assent standards, broader ratification of international conventions, and capacity-building within national systems particularly in emerging economies.
Legal Harmonization for Energy Transitions: Embedding SDG 7 and Paris Agreement Norms in National Renewable Energy Law Supangat, Ajis; Tridianto, Ari; Parwati, Anak Agung Dewi Intan; Simanungkalit, Robert L.; Saputra , Dedi
Legalis : Journal of Law Review Vol. 3 No. 1 (2025): January 2025
Publisher : Indonesian Scientific Publication

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.61978/legalis.v3i1.1128

Abstract

Achieving Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7) requires integrating global legal commitments into national renewable energy laws. This article examines how international frameworks particularly SDG 7 and the Paris Agreement can be harmonized with domestic legal systems to accelerate renewable energy transitions. Using a doctrinal-comparative method, it analyzes the legal architectures of the European Union (EU), the United States (US), and Indonesia, focusing on binding targets, incentive models, and policy instruments. The EU’s rule-based system (RED III, REPowerEU) illustrates the effectiveness of legally mandated targets and fast-track permitting. In contrast, the US Inflation Reduction Act exemplifies a long-term incentive-based approach using technology-neutral tax credits (Sections 45Y and 48E) to de-risk renewable investment. Indonesia’s evolving hybrid model blends regulatory mandates (Perpres 112/2022), planning instruments (RUPTL), and strategic finance platforms (JETP-CIPP), though it faces challenges from regulatory instability, such as rooftop solar policy reversals. These case studies reveal that legal predictability is a key driver of investment and policy coherence. Hybrid legal frameworks in the Global South demonstrate the need for adaptable models that accommodate local governance realities while aligning with international norms. Embedding global standards into national law enhances policy legitimacy, investment security, and implementation effectiveness. The study concludes that harmonizing global and national legal systems through binding obligations, fiscal incentives, and transparent planning is essential for achieving SDG 7. It advocates for legal toolkits that combine enforcement, flexibility, and normative alignment to support inclusive, sustainable energy transitions.
Co-Authors Nasution, Emmi Rahmiwita Parwati, Anak Agung Dewi Intan Saputra , Dedi Sara, Rineke Simanungkalit, Robert L. Taufiqurokhman Tridianto, Ari