<![CDATA[Soil physical and chemical properties are critical indicators of soil quality and sustainability under different land management systems. This study aimed to evaluate and compare soil physical and chemical characteristics across conventional agriculture, conservation agriculture, agroforestry, and natural land systems. Soil samples were collected at a depth of 0–20 cm using both disturbed and undisturbed sampling techniques. Key physical parameters, including bulk density, total porosity, and soil moisture content, as well as chemical properties such as soil pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and exchangeable potassium, were analyzed using standard laboratory methods. The results revealed significant differences among land management systems. Conventional agriculture exhibited higher bulk density and lower organic carbon and nutrient contents, indicating soil degradation due to intensive management practices. In contrast, agroforestry and natural land systems showed improved soil structure, higher organic matter content, and more balanced nutrient availability. Conservation agriculture demonstrated intermediate soil conditions, suggesting its potential to mitigate soil degradation. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of sustainable land management practices in maintaining soil health and enhancing long-term agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability.]]>
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