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INDONESIA
International Journal of Environment, Engineering, and Education
Published by Three E Science Institute
ISSN : -     EISSN : 26568039     DOI : https://doi.org/10.55151/ijeedu
Core Subject : Science, Education, Social, Engineering,
Civil Engineering, Building, Construction & Architecture Computer Science & IT Education Electrical & Electronics Engineering Engineering Environmental Science
The International Journal of Environment, Engineering, and Education [e-ISSN: 2656-8039] is a peer-reviewed, open-access journal that is published three times a year [in April, August, and December]; this journal provides the right platform for authors to update their knowledge, information, and share their research results with the more significant scientific community publishing research articles explaining the ecological, technical, and educational impact of research from various disciplines publishing research articles explaining the environmental, technical, and educational implications of research from multiple disciplines publishing research As an interdisciplinary scientific publication, this journal encourages collaboration between researchers, academics, practitioners, and policymakers in various sectors to develop sustainable solutions to address environmental, engineering, and educational problems and promote sustainable development.
Arjuna Subject : Umum - Umum
Articles 121 Documents
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Map-Derived Agreement Assessment of Landsat-9 OLI-2 for Island-Scale Lithological Discrimination in a Humid Tropical Setting from Langkawi Island, Malaysia Yaokai Du; Ying Jia Teoh; Nur Azwin Ismail; Ismail Ahmad Abir; Haylay Tsegab Gebretsadik
International Journal of Environment, Engineering and Education Vol. 8 No. 2 (2026)
Publisher : Three E Science Institute

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.55151/ijeedu.v8i2.512

Abstract

Lithological discrimination in humid tropical islands remains constrained by dense vegetation, deep weathering, regolith cover, mixed pixels, and discontinuous bedrock exposure, which collectively weaken diagnostic spectral responses. This study evaluates the capability and limitations of Landsat-9 OLI-2 for island-scale lithological discrimination in Langkawi Island, Malaysia, using an interpretable optical-only workflow. Atmospherically corrected Landsat-9 imagery was processed through false-color composites, Optimum Index Factor (OIF)-based band selection, band-ratio enhancement, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Jeffries–Matusita separability analysis, and Maximum Likelihood Classification (MLC). The resulting MLC lithological map was assessed pixel-by-pixel against a published geological map; consequently, the reported statistics represent map-derived agreement rather than independent field-validated lithological accuracy. Results show that the OIF-selected RGB 6-5-2 composite, selected band-ratio combinations, and PCA enhanced broad contrasts among Quaternary Alluvium, granitic terrain, and carbonate-bearing formations. The MLC classification achieved an overall map-derived agreement of 51.72% and a kappa coefficient of 0.4177. Qal, Cm-SS/Sh/Md, and OS-Ls/SS showed relatively stronger agreement, whereas PT-Ls/Mb, DP-St/Md, and Tr-Gr were more affected by spectral overlap and class confusion. NDVI-stratified assessment further confirmed that vegetation cover influences classification performance, with low-vegetation areas producing higher agreement than moderate-vegetation areas. This study establishes a reproducible full-island baseline for evaluating optical multispectral lithological mapping under humid tropical conditions. These findings demonstrate that Landsat-9 OLI-2 can support reconnaissance-level lithological discrimination in humid tropical islands but remains insufficient for precise formation-level mapping without field validation and integration with SAR, DEM-derived, or higher-resolution spectral datasets.

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