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Contact Name
Alex Denny Kambey
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Phone
+6282196305145
Journal Mail Official
sdperairan@unsrat.ac.id
Editorial Address
Fakultas Perikanan dan Ilmu Kelautan Universitas Sam Ratulangi Manado Indonesia 95115
Location
Kota manado,
Sulawesi utara
INDONESIA
JURNAL PERIKANAN DAN KELAUTAN TROPIS
ISSN : 2302609X     EISSN : 23026081     DOI : https://doi.org/10.35800/jpkt
Jurnal Perikanan dan Kelautan Tropis merupakan terbitan berkala ilmiah yang bertujuan menjadi sarana penyebarluasan hasil penelitian dan ilmu pengetahuan dalam bidang Perikanan dan Kelautan di daerah Tropis. Hasil penelitian akan diutamakan untuk diterbitkan. Namun demikian, redaksi juga menerima ulasan ilmiah berupa tinjauan teori, ulasan buku baru, komunikasi singkat dan karya ilmiah lainnya. Artikel bisa ditulis dalam bahasa Indonesia atau Inggris.
Articles 137 Documents
PENGARUH SUBSTRAT IJUK DAN Hydrilla sp. TERHADAP DERAJAT PEMBUAHAN DAN PENETASAN TELUR IKAN MAS Sinjal, Hengky J
JURNAL PERIKANAN DAN KELAUTAN TROPIS Vol 7, No 1 (2011)
Publisher : Sam Ratulangi University

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | Full PDF (210.992 KB) | DOI: 10.35800/jpkt.7.1.2011.12

Abstract

Good quality carp seed supply in relation to number, time, price and location is a crucial factor for the success of the fish cultivation. To ensure the availability of fish seed under these requirements, this study was technically directed to increase the fertility rate, the hatchability rte and the survival of larvae and post larvae. This study was aimed to find good substrates for spawning and egg hatching of the common carp, Cyprinus carpio L. Were used at Sugar Palm Fiber and Hydrilla sp. as substrates for the egg attachment. For this, males and females of 1:1 weight ratio were put into the spawning pond. Eggs attached to both susbtrate types were counted. Water quality parameters, such as temperature, dissolved oxygen and pH, were also recorded. Results showed that common carps had higher preference to Hydrilla sp. to attach their eggs than to Sugar Palm Fiber (kakaban). Egg hatching is also higher in Hydrilla sp than in Sugar Palm Fiber (kakaban), even though the degree of conception, however were not significantly different.
Weight-Length and Condition Factor of Snakehead Fish Channa striata (Bloch, 1793) from Tondano Lake North Sulawesi Musa Amanpokptis; John L. Tombokan; Nego Elvis Bataragoa; Fransine B. Manginsela
JURNAL PERIKANAN DAN KELAUTAN TROPIS Vol. 10 No. 1 (2021)
Publisher : Sam Ratulangi University

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | Full PDF (1094.423 KB) | DOI: 10.35800/jpkt.10.1.2019.25070

Abstract

Sampling was done in two places, Tolour village and Kaweng village. Samples were taken from fishermen in July and August 2018. Total samples collected were 35 individuals, 20 indivduals from Tolour and 15 from Kaweng. Furthermore, the fish were brought the Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, and data recording was in the Freshwater Bioecology Laboratory. They consisted of 16 males and 19 females. Male length ranged from 25.8 to 43.2 cm, and female from 22.0 to 39.6 cm. The weight of males ranged from 157-755 g and female between 38-422g.Weight-length relationship in this study was W = 0.0017L3.4517 for sex combination, W = 0.0116L2.9161 for males and W = 0.0009L3,6426 for females. The growth pattern for combied sex was isometric (b = 3.457). The growth pattern was isometric (b = 2.9161) for male and allometric positive (b = 3.6426) for females. The relative condition factor (Kn) of all individuals was 1.06 ± 0.44, 1.01 ± 0.13 for males and 1.01 ± 0.58 for femaleKey Words: Tondano Lake, Snakehead Fish, Weight-length, condition factor ABSTRAKPengambilan sampel dilakukan di dua tempat yaitu, Kelurahan Tolour Kecamatan Tondano Timur dan Desa Kaweng Kecamatan  Kakas. Sampel diambil dari hasil tangkapan nelayan pada Bulan Juli dan  Agustus 2018. Sampel yang terkumpul  sebanyak 35 ekor, 20 sampel dari Tolour dan 15 dari Kaweng. Selanjutnya ikan dibawah ke Laboraturium Bioekologi Air Tawar  FPIK untuk pengambilan data. Sampel yang digunakan sebanyak 35 individu yang terdiri atas jenis kelamin jantan 16 individu dan betina 19 individu. Ukuran panjang ikan jantan berkisar antara 25,8-43,2 cm, dan ikan betina berkisar antara 22,0-39,6 cm.  Ukuran berat ikan jantan berkisar antara 157-755 g dan ikan betina beratnya berkisar antara 38-422g. Hubungan panjang berat ikan gabus dalam penelitian ini adalah W= 0,0017L3,4517 untuk gabungan jantan betina, W = 0,0116L2,9161 untuk jenis kelamin jantan  dan W = 0,0009L3,6426 untuk jenis kelamin betina.  Pola pertumbuhan untuk gabungan jantan dan betina adalah isometric (b=3,457).  Pola pertumbuhan ikan gabus adalah pola pertumbuhan isometrik (b=2,9161)   untuk jantan dan allometrik positif (b=3,6426) untuk jenis kelamin betina. Faktor kondisi relative (Kn) seluruh individu adalah 1,06  ± 0,44. Faktor Kondisi  jantan adalah 1,01 ± 0,13. Jenis kelamin betina faktor kondisi adalah 1,01 ± 0,58.Kata kunci: Tondano, ikan gabus, berat-panjag, factor kondisi
ANALISIS PERUBAHAN LUAS LAHAN MANGROVE DI KABUPATEN POHUWATO PROPINSI GORONTALO DENGAN MENGGUNAKAN CITRA LANDSAT Opa, Esry T
JURNAL PERIKANAN DAN KELAUTAN TROPIS Vol 6, No 2 (2010)
Publisher : Sam Ratulangi University

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | Full PDF (657.386 KB) | DOI: 10.35800/jpkt.6.2.2010.165

Abstract

A study on spatial evaluation of mangrove resource was carried out in Pohuwato Regency, the province of Gorontalo, for 3 months. The mangrove resources in this area have been exploited to build ponds, houses and for firewood. As the result, there was a significant decrease in mangrove population. In this study, main data were gathered from Landsat TM Satellite Image 2000-2001 and 2009-2010, and others data collected from the field and interviews with local villagers. Aproximately 60 sampling points were observed and examined. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was applied to determine the extent of mangroves and its changes. In 2000-2001, the mangrove area was about 7,007.67 Ha, and reduced to 3,034.53 Ha in 2009-2010.
PENGHAMBATAN OKSIDASI LIPIDA IKAN TUNA OLEH AIR JAHE SELAMA PENYIMPANAN DINGIN Harikedua, Silvana Dinaintang
JURNAL PERIKANAN DAN KELAUTAN TROPIS Vol 8, No 1 (2012)
Publisher : Sam Ratulangi University

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | Full PDF (293.85 KB) | DOI: 10.35800/jpkt.8.1.2012.231

Abstract

Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui efek suplementasi ekstrak air jahe pada oksidasi lipida daging ikan tuna yang disimpan selama 9 hari. Oksidasi lipida ikan tuna beku dievaluasi berdasarkan nilai bilangan peroksida dan pembentukan malonaldehyde (nilai TBA) pada hari ke 0, 3, 6 dan 9 penyimpanan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa suplementasi ekstrak air jahe meningkatkan stabilitas ikan tuna beku terhadap oksidasi lipida dibandingkan dengan kontrol. Ekstrak air jahe 2% dan 3% lebih efektif dalam menghambat oksidasi lipida daging ikan tuna selama penyimpanan dibandingkan ekstrak air jahe 1%. Kata kunci: Tuna, ekstrak jahe, antioksidan, penyimpanan dingin, peroksida, malonaldehid.Inhibition of Tuna Lipid Oxidation by Ginger Extract during Refrigeration The effects of ginger extract supplementation on lipid oxidation of raw tuna during refrigerated storage for 9 days were examined. Lipid oxidation was assessed by monitoring peroxide and malonaldehyde formation in raw tuna at 0, 3, 6 and 9 days of refrigerated storage. Results showed that all ginger extracts treatments significantly increased the stability of frozen tuna to lipid oxidation compared with the control. Ginger extracts of 2% and 3% was more effective in inhibiting lipid oxidation of raw tuna than 1% extract. Keywords: Tuna, ginger extract, antioxidant, refrigerate storage, peroxide, malonaldehyde.  
MUTU IKAN KAKAP MERAH YANG DIOLAH DENGAN PERBEDAAN KONSENTRASI LARUTAN GARAM DAN LAMA PENGERINGAN Reo, Albert R
JURNAL PERIKANAN DAN KELAUTAN TROPIS Vol 9, No 1 (2013)
Publisher : Sam Ratulangi University

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | Full PDF (406.026 KB) | DOI: 10.35800/jpkt.9.1.2013.3451

Abstract

Ikan adalah salah satu sumber protein hewani yang tinggi (18-20%)untuk memenuhi nutrisi dan kesehatan yang baik untuk tubuh manusia. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui kadar air, lemak dan protein, serta mengetahui preferensi panelis level untuk ikan kakap merah asin. Hasil analisis kadar air produk dengan konsentrasi larutan garam 15% pengeringan 12 jam adalah 37,38% juga konsentrasi larutan garam 17% dengan pengeringan 12 jam adalah 33,71%. Itu berarti memiliki nilai kadar air dapat diterima dan memiliki kualitas yang baik. Hasil kadar protein produk kakap merah asin konsentrasi larutan garam 15% dengan pengeringan 8 jam si 17% dengan pengeringan 10 jam adalah 39,73% memiliki nilai kadar protein dapat diterima dan memiliki kualitas yang baik. Hasil uji organoleptik seperti tekstur, oder, preferensi dan konsentrasi memiliki nilai tinggi dengan konsentrasi larutan garam 15–17%, pengeringan 12 jam. Kata kunci: kakap merah, konsentrasi larutan garam, waktu pengeringan.   Fish is the one of animal protein it means have a importance in nutrition and health. Fish also one the resource animal protein most as a food. Fish have a high protein content is around 18-20%, that is why good for human body. The objective of this research is to know the water content, fat, protein and know the level preference panelis to the salted fish red snapper. The result of water content analysis product with con­centration salted solution 15% with during 12 hours is 37, 38% also concentration salted solution 17% with drying 12 hours is 33,71%. That means have water content value can accepted and have a good quality. The result of protein content the product red snapper salted concentration solution 15% with drying 8 hours si 17% with drying 10 hours is 39,73% have a protein content value can accepted and have a good quality. The result of organoleptic test like texture, oder, preference and concentration the average score have a highest value which the concentration 15–17% salted solution with drying 12 hours because for that treatment organoleptic mostly panelis like it. Keywords: red snapper, salt concentration, drying time.
IDENTIFIKASI DAN ANALISIS MODAL SOSIAL DALAM RANGKA PEMBERDAYAAN MASYARAKAT NELAYAN DESA GANGGA DUA KABUPATEN MINAHASA UTARA Pontoh, Otniel
JURNAL PERIKANAN DAN KELAUTAN TROPIS Vol 6, No 3 (2010)
Publisher : Sam Ratulangi University

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | Full PDF (356.535 KB) | DOI: 10.35800/jpkt.6.3.2010.156

Abstract

This research which aimed to identified and analyzed social capital of fisheries communities in Gangga dua village, North Monahasa District, has been conducted in 2007. Socio-culture data collected from fisheries community is consist of local value and local value system, local religious, pattern and system of production and reproduction and local politics. Data was collected by snowball sampling from community members who have deep knowledge about socio-culture of their community themselves. After data collected shown the socio-culture character of fisheries community then it has been analyzed to show the social capital typology. The research shows that fisheries community in Gangga Dua village still become closed community or has a characteristif of social capital bounding. Need a policy related to social structure improvement because of the social capital typology's of fisheries community in Pasauran village has been big influenced by various of economic aspect in economic activity of their life.
KARAKTERISTIK BAKTERI PEREDUKSI MERKURI (Escherichia coli) DIISOLASI DARI PERAIRAN PANTAI TELUK MANADO Ijong, Frans G; Dien, Henny A
JURNAL PERIKANAN DAN KELAUTAN TROPIS Vol 7, No 3 (2011)
Publisher : Sam Ratulangi University

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | Full PDF (591.748 KB) | DOI: 10.35800/jpkt.7.3.2011.186

Abstract

ABSTRACTIn the environment like seawater, mercury can be oxidized by some bacteria, such as Thiobacillus, to produce Hg ions which are soluble in water and toxic to marine organisms, such as bacteria, algae, and so on. On the other hand, the occurrence of Pseudomonas, as E. coli, is believed can reduce the number of Hg ions in the environment. An experiment was conducted to count total coliform and total E. coli, to isolate, to identify E. coli isolated from Manado Bay seawater, and to determine the ability of E. coli isolates to do reduction and or oxidation of mercury ions. Seawater samples were collected from the reclamation area, especially close to Tondano River, Sario River and Bahu River around Manado Bay. As a control, some water samples were taken from Bunaken Island waters at Liang and Muka Kampung area. An amount of 500 ml water samples was taken from the sampling site and placed into container, then brought to the laboratory for further analysis, such as total coliform, total E. coli. In addition, some biochemical tests were also carried out in order to identify the isolate. The results showed that nearly all isolates of E. coli (83.3%) exhibited their ability in mercury ions oxidation, while the isolates that can reduce ion mercury were 13.3% only. The highest Hg-ions reduction was influenced by the characteristic of isolates, and mercury ions oxidation was also dependent upon the strain type.Keywords: E. coli, reduction-oxidation, Hg-ions.ABSTRAKDalam lingkungan perairan laut, merkuri dapat teroksidasi oleh bebera-pa bakteri, seperti Thiobacillus. Bakteri ini dapat menghasilkan ion Hg yang la-rut dalam air dan bersifat racun bagi organisme laut lainnya. Di sisi lain, keha-diran Pseudomonas seperti juga E. coli, diyakini dapat mengurangi jumlah ion Hg di lingkungan. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah menghitung total coliform dan to-tal E. coli, untuk mengisolasi dan mengidentifikasinya dari perairan Teluk Manado, dan menentukan kemampuan isolat E. coli dalam mereduksi dan mengoksidasi ion-ion merkuri. Sampel air laut dikumpulkan dari areal reklama-si, terutama di daerah yang dekat dengan Sungai Tondano, Sungai Sario dan Sungai Bahu. Sebagai kontrol, beberapa sampel air (@ 500 sampel ml) diambil dari perairan Pulau Bunaken di Liang dan Kampung Muka, kemudian dibawa ke laboratorium untuk dianalisis lebih lanjut, seperti total coliform, jumlah E. coli. Selain itu, beberapa tes biokimia juga dilakukan untuk mengidentifikasi isolat. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa hampir semua isolat E. coli (83,3%) menunjukkan kemampuan mereka dalam mengoksidasi ion merkuri, sedangkan isolat yang dapat mengurangi ion merkuri hanya 13,3% saja. Penurunan ion Hg tertinggi dipengaruhi oleh karakteristik isolat, demikian pula dengan kemampuan oksidasi ion merkuti tergantung pada jenis strainnya.Kata kunci: E. coli, reduksi-oksidasi Hg, ion Hg.
PROFIL SALINITAS DAN SUHU DI TELUK MANADO PADA HARI-HARI HUJAN DAN TIDAK HUJAN Kalangi, Patrice NI; Masengi, Kawilarang WA; Iwata, Masamitsu; Pangalila, Fransisco PT; Mandagi, Ixchel F
JURNAL PERIKANAN DAN KELAUTAN TROPIS Vol 8, No 3 (2012)
Publisher : Sam Ratulangi University

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | Full PDF (783.032 KB) | DOI: 10.35800/jpkt.8.3.2012.2443

Abstract

Pengukuran salinitas dan suhu perairan dilakukan pada hari-hari hujan dan tidak hujan di dua tempat di perairan Teluk Manado, yang memiliki lima sungai utama di pinggirannya, untuk menyelidiki profil vertikal dari salinitas dan suhu, serta ketebalan air tawar. Profil salinitas dan suhu perairan pada hari yang sama di kedua tempat adalah mirip. Pada hari-hari hujan, salinitas rata-rata lapisan permukaan perairan adalah 33,9 lebih rendah 0,3 dibandingkan pada hari-hari tidak hujan. Salinitas permukaan ini setara dengan ketebalan lapisan air tawar sebesar 0,45 m. di lapisan permukaan, profil suhu cukup mirip. Akan tetapi, pada lapisan yang lebih dalam, suhu berosilasi pada fase yang berbeda dengan bertambahnya kedalaman. Kata kunci: ketebalan lapisan air tawar, termoklin, Bunaken.   Salinity and temperature measurements were carried out on rainy days and non rainy days in two locations in Manado Bay, which is the outlet of fresh water masses from five main rivers, to investigate vertical profiles of salinity and temperature, and the thickness of the fresh water layer. Same day salinity and temperature profiles in both places is similar. On rainy days, the average salinity in the surface layer was 33.9, 0.3 lower than that of non rainy days. The surface salinity is equivalent to the thickness of the freshwater layer thickness of 0.45 m. In the surface layer, the temperature profile is quite similar. However, in the deeper layers, the temperature oscillates at different phases according to the increasing depths. Keywords: freshwater thickness, thermocline, Bunaken.
Species And Abundance Of Fish In The Seagrass Beds Napomanuk Island, West Likupang, North Minahasa Ardi Lensun; Nego E. Bataragoa; Ari B. Rondonuwu
JURNAL PERIKANAN DAN KELAUTAN TROPIS Vol. 10 No. 3 (2021)
Publisher : Sam Ratulangi University

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | Full PDF (428.549 KB) | DOI: 10.35800/jpkt.10.3.2019.27532

Abstract

This study aims to know fish genera, species abundance, and biomass in the seagrass bed of Napomanuk island. It applied swept area method using a beach seine 60 m long 3 m depth with 0.5 cm mesh at the purse and 1 cm at the wings. The study was conducted at full moon and new moon period at both high tide and low tide. There were 55 fish species of 31 families recorded. In full moon period, 37 species occurred at high tide. The species abundance (Ki) ranged from 0.0004/m2 to 0.0126/m2 with the highest in Diodon liturosus, 0.0126/m2. The biomass abundance (Kb) ranged from 0.0019 g/m2 to 1.133 g/m2, with the highest in Diodon liturosus,1.133 g/m2. At low tide, there were 16 species recorded with the species abundance (Ki) of 0.0006/m2 to 0.0037/m2 and the highest in Diodon liturosus 0.0037/m2 and the biomass abundance (Kb) of 0.0002 g/m2 to 0.2949 g/m2 and the highest in  Diodon liturosus 0.2949 g/m2. In new moon period, there were 29 species recorded at high tide. The species abundance (Ki) ranged from 0.0004/m2 to 0.0041/m2 with the highest in Diodon liturosus with the highest in Diodon liturosus, 0.0041/m2. The biomass abundance (Kb) ranged from 0.0007 g/m2 to 0.4015 g/m2, with the highest in Diodon liturosus 0.4015 g/m2. At low tide, there  were 22 species recorded. The species abundance (Ki) ranged from 0.0004/m2 to 0.0096/m2 with the highest in Diodon liturosus, 0.0096/m2. The biomass abundance (Kb) ranged from 0.0011 g/m2 to 1.1119 g/m2, with the highest in Diodon liturosus, 1.1119 g/m2.Keyword: Seagrass Ecosystem, Abundance, Species, Biomass, Napomanuk Island ABSTRAKPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui jenis ikan dan kelimpahan individu dan biomassa ikan di Padang Lamun Pulau Napomanuk. Metode penelitian menggunakan metode daerah sapuan (sweept area) dengan menggunakan pukat pantai dengan panjang 60 m, tinggi bagian kantong 3 m, mata jaring kantong 0,5 cm, dan mata jaring sayap 1 cm. Penelitian dilaksanakan pada fase bulan purnama dan bulan baru baik waktu air pasang maupun air surut. Selama penelitian ini ditemukan 31 famili dan 55 spesies ikan. Pada periode air pasang bulan purnama terdapat 37 spesies ikan. Kelimpahan individu (Ki) berkisar antara 0,0004/m2 sampai 0,0126/m2, dengan nilai Ki terbesar pada spesies Diodon liturosus 0,0126/m2. Kelimpahan biomassa (Kb)  berkisarantara 0,0019 g/m2 sampai 1,133 g/m2, dengan nilai Kb terbesar pada spesies Diodon liturosus 1,133 g/m2. Pada periode air surut bulan purnama terdapat 16 spesies ikan. Kelimpahan individu (Ki) berkisar antara 0,0006/m2 sampai 0,0037/m2, dengan nilai Ki terbesar pada spesies Diodon liturosus 0,0037/m2. Kelimpahan biomassa (Kb) berkisar antara 0,0002 g/m2 sampai 0,2949 g/m2, dengan nilai Kb terbesar pada spesies Diodon liturosus 0,2949 g/m2. Pada periode air pasang bulan baru terdapat 29 spesies ikan. Kelimpahan individu (Ki) berkisar antara 0,0004/m2 sampai 0,0041/m2 dengan nilai Ki terbesar pada spesies Diodon liturosus 0,0041/m2. Kelimpahan biomassa (Kb) berkisar antara 0,0007 g/m2 sampai 0,4015 g/m2, dengan nilai Kb terbesar pada spesies Diodon liturosus 0,4015 g/m2. Pada periode air surut bulan baru terdapat 22 spesies ikan. Kelimpahan individu (Ki) berkisar antara 0,0004/m2 sampai 0,0096/m2 dengan nilai Ki terbesar pada spesies Diodon liturosus 0,0096/m2. Kelimpahan biomassa (Kb) berkisar antara 0,0011 g/m2 sampai 1,1119 g/m2, dengan nilai Kb terbesar pada spesies Diodon liturosus 1,1119 g/m2.Kata kunci : Ekosistem Lamun, Kelimpahan, Spesies, Biomassa, Pulau Napomanuk
QUANTITATIVE DATA ABOUT CORAL RECRUITMENT FROM BUNAKEN ISLAND, MANADO INDONESIA Singkoh, Marina FO
JURNAL PERIKANAN DAN KELAUTAN TROPIS Vol 6, No 1 (2010)
Publisher : Sam Ratulangi University

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | Full PDF (109.663 KB) | DOI: 10.35800/jpkt.6.1.2010.120

Abstract

Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menentukan kepadatan pf rekrutmen karang di berbagai lokasi di Pulau Bunaken dan analis interaksi pada rekrutmen karang didasarkan pada kuantitas, kedalaman dan situs.  Penelitian dilakukan di kedalaman 3 dan 10 meter dan tiga direplikasi di setiap kedalaman.  Kami menggunakan metode sabuk tansect.  Jalur ini 50m dan lebar 1m kanan dan 1m.  Jadi daerah penelitian adalah 2x50 = 100m2.  Ketika dilakukan penelitian kita berenang zigzag dan menghitung setiap perekrutan karang yang temukan.  Kami ukur setiap merekrut karang yang temukan di analisa dan dicatat setiap pengukuran pada papan tulis bawah air.  Ukuran karang adalah <5cm.  Dari penelitian yang dilakukan, jumlah rekrutmen karang yang ditemukan adalah 96 koloni.  Koloni ini ditemukan di tiga lokasi yaitu Liang sebagai situs I (27 koloni), Tawara sebagai situs II (30 koloni) dan Zona Inti sebagai Situs III (39 koloni).  Kepadatan tertinggi di zona inti pada kedalaman 3 meter.  Sebagai kesimpulan, rekrutmen karang dapat berkembang dengan baik di kedalaman 3m atau kurang dari 3m, juga di wilayah yang kurang atau tidak ada aktivitas manusia. bagaimanapun, faktor-faktor lain seperti fisik, kimia dan faktor biologis juga memainkan peranan penting dalam perkembangan karang.

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