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Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity
Published by Universitas Sebelas Maret
ISSN : 1412033X     EISSN : 20854722     DOI : https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d230231
Core Subject : Science, Agriculture,
Agriculture, Biological Sciences & Forestry Biochemistry, Genetics & Molecular Biology
The Biodiversitas Journal was first published in 2000 by the Department of Biology, FMNS, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia, then in 2006 it was co-published by the Society for Indonesian Biodiversity and that department; since 2017 it was also hosted by Smujo. From 2003-2012 it was accredited by DGHE, Ministry of Education, R.I., since 2014 was indexed by Scopus, where DOAJ and Google Scholar was indexed first.
Arjuna Subject : Biokimia, Genetika dan Biologi Molekuler - Biokimia, Genetika dan Biologi Molekuler (Lain-Lain)
Articles 6,269 Documents
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Genetic diversity of Indonesian rice varieties for salinity tolerance using RAPD markers TUTIK NURHIDAYATI; FIRDHA CHAYLIA AYU RACHMANDIKA; MUHAMMAD QUDWAH JUNDANA; ANISA ESTI RAHAYU; BAGUS HERWIBAWA; TRIONO BAGUS SAPUTRO
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 2 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260221

Abstract

Abstract. Nurhidayati T, Rachmandika FCA, Jundana MQ, Rahayu AE, Herwibawa B, Saputro TB. 2025. Genetic diversity of Indonesian rice varieties for salinity tolerance using RAPD markers. Biodiversitas 26: 731-738. Rice (Oryza sativa) is essential for food security in Indonesia, but agricultural land conversion and rising salinity threaten production. Therefore, it is crucial to study germplasm collections for salt tolerance and utilize molecular markers to select resistant lines. This study investigated the potential marker for salinity tolerance using local Indonesian rice. We investigated the genetic diversity of five germplasm collections (i.e., IR64, Jeliteng, Mantap, Pamerah, and Situ Bagendit) using a molecular marker technique with Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD). The genomic DNA was extracted using CTAB 2%. This research employed ten RAPD primers (OPA-02, OPA-10, OPA-13, OPB-07, OPC-02, OPD-08, OPI-01, OPK-20, OPU-19, OPU-20). The analysis revealed a significant level of polymorphism, producing 184 bands, of which 168 were polymorphic, indicating 100% polymorphism; notably, the OPI-01 primer exhibited 94% polymorphism. The amplified bands ranged from 250 to 1920 base pairs, with the OPC-02 primer showing the most promising results, evidenced by a PIC value of 0.431. These findings suggest that the identified RAPD markers can effectively enhance the selection of salt-resistant rice varieties. This study highlights the potential of molecular markers, such as OPC-02, that could be valuable tools for selecting salt-tolerant rice varieties and contributing to food security amidst the challenges of agricultural land conversion and soil salinity.
Short Communication: First report on the occurrence of microplastic contamination in mariculture Eucheuma cottonii from Lancang Island, Kepulauan Seribu National Park, Jakarta, Indonesia MBARA CHAM; YASMAN YASMAN
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 25 No. 10 (2024)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d251059

Abstract

Abstract. Cham M, Yasman Y. 2024. Short Communication: First report on the occurrence of microplastic contamination in mariculture Eucheuma cottonii from Lancang Island, Kepulauan Seribu National Park, Jakarta, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 3995-3999. Microplastics (MPs) contamination in marine environments significantly threatens marine ecosystems and human health. This study presents the first recorded occurrence of MP contamination in the macroalga Eucheuma cottonii Weber Bosse, 1913, specifically in samples collected from Lancang Island, Kepulauan Seribu National Park, Jakarta, Indonesia. Fibrous blue MPs, measuring approximately 400 µm, were identified in two samples, each weighing 15 g (wet weight). This finding aligns with previous studies reporting fibrous MPs as the global contaminants in macroalgal populations. Despite the similarity, our findings contrast with those from nearby regions, where fragment MPs were observed as the most abundant form. The interaction between MPs and macroalgae is influenced by factors such as surface texture, chemical composition, and the presence of mucilage. Additionally, MPs have been shown to impact macroalgal health, reducing growth rates and photosynthetic efficiency and increasing oxidative stress, highlighting the need for further research. Considering E. cottonii as an edible macroalga and a critical habitat provider in marine ecosystems, regular monitoring of MPs contamination is essential. This research contributes to a broader investigation of MP contamination, growth patterns, and secondary metabolite production in macroalgae under different cultivation techniques, underscoring the importance of sustainable practices in marine resource management.
eDNA metabarcoding in mangrove ecosystems for fish conservation and stock assessment of Sardinops sagax melanostictus in the Philippines TRICKSIE P. BALATERO; ZILJIH MOLINA; RODELYN DALAYAP; RANDE DECHAVEZ; JANECE JEAN MANUBAG; NANETTE HOPE SUMAYA; JUSUA DELA PEÑA; SHARON ROSE TABUGO
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 1 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260134

Abstract

Abstract. Balatero TP, Molina Z, Dalayap RM, Dechavez R, Manubag JJ, Sumaya NH, Peña JD, Tabugo SRM. 2025. eDNA metabarcoding in mangrove ecosystems for fish conservation and stock assessment of Sardinops sagax melanostictus in the Philippines. Biodiversitas 26: 347-357. Mangrove forests are essential ecosystems that provide many benefits, including nursery grounds for various marine species; however, identifying juveniles is often challenging, as visual fish surveys primarily rely on the characteristics of adult specimens for accurate classification. These vital ecosystems are threatened by overfishing, habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change. Therefore, this study employs environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding as a non-invasive tool to identify fish species in the mangrove ecosystems of Mindanao, Philippines. eDNA metabarcoding facilitates species detection by analyzing genetic material found in environmental samples, offering a cost-effective and sensitive method for identifying fish species. Seawater samples were collected from selected mangrove areas, and the extracted eDNA was analyzed using high-throughput next-generation sequencing (NGS). The sampling sites were South Cotabato, Surigao del Norte, Misamis Oriental, and Tawi-Tawi, which recorded 29 species across 20 families. Notable species included Zenarchopterus dunckeri (Zenarchopteridae), a rare fish in the aquarium hobby; Hippocampus comes (Syngnathidae), the tiger-tail seahorse, which is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN; Sardinops melanostictus (Clupeidae), known for its high commercial value; Siganus corallinus (Siganidae), valued for both food and the aquarium trade; and Gymnothorax flavimarginatus (Muraenidae), an invasive species, that plays a vital role in the food chain as a natural predator of lionfish. Tawi-Tawi Island emerged as the most diverse site, recording species from 11 families. The results highlight the critical role of mangroves as nurseries in supporting diverse fish populations and underscore the effectiveness of eDNA metabarcoding as complementary to traditional species inventory techniques.
Exploring dynamics in larval fish diversity, assemblages, and abundance across four mangrove areas in Peninsular Malaysia IZZATI ADILAH AZMIR; YUZINE ESA; M. AQMAL-NASER; INA SALWANY MD YASIN; S. M. NURUL AMIN; FARIDA ZURAINA MOHD YUSOF; AMIRRUDIN AHMAD
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 3 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260322

Abstract

Abstract. Azmir IA, Esa Y, Aqmal-Naser M, Yasin ISM, Amin SMN, Yusof FZM, Ahmad A. 2025. Exploring dynamics in larval fish diversity, assemblages, and abundance across four mangrove areas in Peninsular Malaysia. Biodiversitas 26: 1229-1237. Understanding larval fish populations is crucial for assessing the impact of habitat disturbances and ensuring consistent stock recruitment. However, challenges include extensive sampling requirements, time-consuming identification, and limited identification keys. This study aims to explore larval fish diversity, assemblages, and abundance in four mangrove areas across Peninsular Malaysia: Matang (Perak), Pekan (Pahang), Setiu (Terengganu), and Pendas (Johor). Sampling was conducted during the highest tide and full moon phases using a Bongo net (500 ?m mesh size, 60 cm diameter) towed at 0.5 m depth, with a flow-meter to calculate the water volume filtered. Larval fish were identified to the nearest genus or species. Pendas exhibited the highest species diversity, richness, and evenness, whereas Setiu recorded the lowest. Species compositions varied across sites, with Gobiidae dominating in Pekan, Matang, and Pendas; Clupeidae in Pendas; and Engraulidae across all sites except Setiu. Community similarity was assessed, showing 20% similarity between Matang, Pekan, and Pendas, and 30% similarity between Matang and Pekan. All sites were dissimilar at a 40% similarity threshold. Pendas also hosted the highest number of unique species (n: 13), followed by Pekan (n: 6), Matang (n: 5), and Setiu (n: 3). Species overlap was noted, with Pendas sharing nine species with Pekan, five with Matang, and one with Setiu. These findings offer valuable insights for conservation efforts, emphasizing the importance of safeguarding larval fish populations and their habitats to support ecosystem health and fish recruitment. This study provides crucial data for decision-makers to implement targeted conservation strategies to preserve larval fish diversity and mitigate the effects of habitat disturbance.
Detection of Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel (VGSC) L1014F knockdown-resistance (Kdr) mutation of Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes from Surabaya, Indonesia INTAN FATMA LISTIANDARI; TEGUH HARI SUCIPTO; SYANANDA ZAHRA FADILA; AHMAD RUDI SETIAWAN; SHIFA FAUZIYAH; SAFIRA MADANIYAH; ERYANTIKA CIPTA DEWI; ANAQI SYADDAD IHSAN; NUNIEK HERDYASTUTI; RUDIANA AGUSTINI; RATIH DEWI SAPUTRI; HARIYONO HARIYONO
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 3 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260335

Abstract

Abstract. Listiandari IF, Sucipto TH, Fadila SZ, Setiawan AR, Fauziyah S, Madaniyah S, Dewi EC, Ihsan AS, Herdyastuti N, Agustini R, Saputri RD, Hariyono. 2025. Detection of Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel (VGSC) L1014F knockdown-resistance (Kdr) mutation of Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes from Surabaya, Indonesia. Biodiveritas 26: 1354-1359. Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes are a genus of mosquito that can transmit dangerous viruses to humans through their bites, causing diseases in humans such as lymphatic filariasis, chikungunya, Japanese encephalitis, West Nile fever, encephalitis, and St. Louis encephalitis. Therefore, vector control is needed to suppress the spread of these diseases. An easy and inexpensive method to control the vector is using insecticide. Long-term use of insecticide causes the mosquitoes to gain resistance to it. The phenomenon of mosquitoes becoming resistant to insecticides is referred to as knockdown resistance (Kdr). Kdr occurs due to a mutation in the Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel (VGSC), which is the target site of the insecticide. This mutation leads to the reduced sensitivity of the sodium channel to pyrethroid insecticides. The primary objective of this study was to detect the presence of the Vgsc-L1014F Kdr mutation in C. quinquefasciatus mosquitoes. Samples were obtained from six different locations in Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia. This was determined using a technique known as allele-specific PCR (AS-PCR). DNA was extracted from 23 samples of Culex spp. mosquitoes samples, and the VGSC-L1014F mutation was detected using the AS-PCR technique. The results of this study indicated 13 positive cases for the TTT/TTA mutation and 10 negative cases.
Lactic acid bacteria isolated from the digestive tract of spiny lobsters (Panulirus homarus) and their potency as probiotics FATURRAHMAN FATURRAHMAN; KIKI RIZKI AULIYAH; LARAS ALISHIA JUANDA; TRI WAHYU SETYANINGRUM; SARKONO SARKONO; BAMBANG FAJAR SURYADI; FARIQ AZHAR; BAYU PRIYAMBODO; WANDA QORIASMADILLAH
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 4 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260432

Abstract

Abstract. Faturrahman, Auliyah KR, Juanda LA, Setyaningrum TW, Sarkono, Suryadi BF, Azhar F, Priyambodo B, Qoriasmadillah W. 2025. Lactic acid bacteria isolated from the digestive tract of spiny lobsters (Panulirus homarus) and their potency as probiotics. Biodiversitas 26: 1827-1835. Spiny lobsters (Panulirus homarus) are an on-demand marine fishery commodity with significant economic value. However, collected data indicate that the lobsters exhibit low growth rates and high mortality due to disease infection caused by Vibrio spp. The provision of probiotics in feed represents a potential solution to this issue. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have been identified as probiotics due to their ability to counteract pathogenic bacteria and synthesize enzymes capable of hydrolyzing complex molecules, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, thereby promoting organismal growth. The objective of this study was to isolate LAB from the digestive tract of spiny lobsters as probiotic candidates. The selection of LAB isolates from the digestive tract was based on their ability to inhibit the growth of Vibrio harveyi bacteria and their capacity to produce a range of extracellular enzymes, including proteases, lipases, and amylases. The results demonstrated the isolation of seven LAB isolates, classified as Pediococcus, Enterococcus, and Lactobacillus genera, which exhibited the capacity to impede the proliferation of V. harveyi. The majority of the isolated LAB were found to possess the ability to hydrolyze protein, starch, and fat, in addition to exerting inhibitory effects against the growth of V. harveyi. Among the isolates, SP6 exhibited the most promising characteristics as a probiotic candidate by demonstrating robust protein and fat hydrolysis abilities, along with a significant capacity to inhibit the growth of V. harveyi.
Rhizobacteria profiling of endemic aromatic rice Pulu Mandoti from Enrekang, South Sulawesi, Indonesia through shotgun metagenomic ANDI MASNIAWATI; BASO MANGUNTUNGI; MUHAMMAD RUSLAN UMAR; NURHIKMAH NURHIKMAH; ARLINDA PUSPITA SARI; ANNISA SURYASETYA SALSABILA
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 7 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260709

Abstract

Abstract. Masniawati A, Manguntungi B, Umar MR, Nurhikmah, Sari AP, Salsabila AS. 2025. Rhizobacteria profiling of endemic aromatic rice Pulu Mandoti from Enrekang, South Sulawesi, Indonesia through shotgun metagenomic. Biodiversitas 26: 3183-3192. Pulu Mandoti is an indigenous rice with a unique aroma, texture, and cultural significance in local communities. The rhizosphere microbial community plays a pivotal role in supporting its growth, nutrient cycling, and stress resilience. Understanding the microbial diversity associated with Pulu Mandoti rice is essential for developing strategies to improve its cultivation and conservation. Therefore, this research aimed to conduct a comprehensive analysis of rhizobacteria profile of Pulu Mandoti through shotgun metagenomic. The research methods include soil analysis, DNA extraction, and shotgun metagenomic analysis. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing reported a diverse microbial community dominated by bacteria, with Proteobacteria (42%) as the most abundant phyla, and Alphaproteobacteria (15%) in the class. In the family level, Anaeromyxobacteraceae and Bradyrhisobiaceae were particularly abundant. The genus Bradyrhizobium within Bradyrhisobiaceae showed the highest richness, with 97 species. Anaeromyxobacter, such as Singulisphaera and Rhodoplanes dominated the species at 66% and 83%, respectively. This microbial profiling showed the intricate relationship between Pulu Mandoti rice and the rhizospheric microbiome, emphasizing the role of microbial diversity in supporting growth and resilience. It’s essential for offering potential applications for sustainable agriculture and crop optimization.
Micromorphological analysis of spores on various species of pteridophytes: Implications for species identifications MILDAWATI MILDAWATI; SHAVIRA PERDANI SAFITRIA HANAFI; ELSA PUTRI; M. ABDUL AZIZ; SHERLI IVANI; NURHASNA NURHASNA; SOLFIYENI SOLFIYENI
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 5 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260530

Abstract

Abstract. Mildawati, Hanafi SPS, Putri E, Aziz MA, Ivani S, Nurhasna, Solfiyeni. 2025. Micromorphological analysis of spores on various species of pteridophytes: Implications for species identifications. Biodiversitas 26: 2332-2338. Pteridophytes, a group of vascular plants, play a critical role in ecosystem balance. However, taxonomic challenges persist in identifying and classifying their species. Spore micromorphological characters, unique to each species, offer a potential solution to these issues. This study aimed to examine the spore micromorphology of several pteridophyte species growing on the Universitas Andalas campus, Padang, Indonesia. The species examined included Antrophyum callifolium, Asplenium nidus, Davallia denticulata, Pteris vittata, Pyrrosia adnascens, P. longifolia, and P. piloselloides. Spore samples were observed using a binocular light microscope with a magnification 40x objective lens and documented with the OptiLabView4 application. The results revealed that most pteridophytes spores studied exhibited a monolete laesura type with an ellipsoid shape, except for A. callifolium and P. vittata, which showed a trilete laesura type with a tetrahedral shape. Exospore ornamentation was varied: verrucate in A. callifolium, A. nidus, D. denticulata, and P. vittata; reticulate in P. adnascens and P. longifolia; and echinate in P. piloselloides. Spore sizes were categorized as medium (25-50 ?m) for A. callifolium, A. nidus, D. denticulata, and P. vittata.; and large (60 ?m) for P. adnascens, P. longifolia, and P. piloselloides. Spore micromorphology of pteridophytes on the Universitas Andalas campus, revealing significant diversity in size, shape, and ornamentation.
Diversity and threats to trees and shrubs in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque in the city of Al-Quds (Jerusalem), Palestine ABDEL FATTAH N. ABD RABOU; ABBOUD Y. EL-KICHAOUI; EQBAL S. RADWAN; EMAN J. AL-BALAWI; AYAT A. ABBAS; KAMAL E. ELKAHLOUT; DAOUD I. AL-HALI; MOHAMMED A. ABD RABOU; ASMAA A. ABD RABOU; ROLA I. JADALLAH; KHALID A. HUSSEIN; MOHAMAD ABOU AUDA; ABED AL QADER I. HAMMAD; INAS A. ABD RABOU; OTHMAN A. ABD RABOU; NAWAL F. ABD RABOU; ASHRAF A. SHAFEI; NEDAL A. FAYYAD; AYMAN W. DARDONA; ZUHAIR W. DARDONA; FATMA A. MADKOUR; HASHEM A. MADKOUR; NORMAN A. KHALAF; MOHAMMED R. AL-AGHA
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 25 No. 11 (2024)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d251145

Abstract

Abstract. Abd Rabou AFN, El-Kichaoui AY, Radwan ES, Al-Balawi EJ, Abbas AA, Elkahlout KE, Al-Hali DI, Abd Rabou MA, Abd Rabou AA, Jadallah RI, Hussein KA, Abou Auda M, Hammad AAQI, Abd Rabou IA, Abd Rabou OA, Abd Rabou NF, Shafei AA, Fayyad NA, Dardona AW, Dardona ZW, Madkour FA, Madkour HA, Khalaf NA, Al-Agha MR. 2024. Diversity and threats to trees and shrubs in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque in the city of Al-Quds (Jerusalem), Palestine. Biodiversitas 25: 4462-4478. The blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque in the city of Al-Quds (Jerusalem), Palestine, which extends over an area of 144,000 square meters, is of great importance to Palestinians, Arabs, and Muslims. Despite the many studies that have addressed the various features of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque, the vegetation cover has been rarely written about. This current descriptive study aims to enumerate the trees and shrubs that adorn the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque. The study relied on continuous visits, observations, and discussions since 2020. A direct inventory of the trees and shrubs was conducted in terms of species and numbers, and they were classified according to the available guidebooks. Photographs were taken for documentation and verification purposes. The number of trees and shrubs in the courtyards of the blessed Al-Aqsa Mosque amounted to 1,042 trees and shrubs. The recorded trees and shrubs consisted of 30 species belonging to 20 families and 14 orders. Gymnosperms included 4 species (13.3%), while angiosperms included 26 species (86.7%). The European Olive (Olea europea L.) was the most widespread species with 550 individuals (52.78%), followed by the Evergreen Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens L.) with 274 individuals (26.29%), and the Aleppo or Jerusalem Pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) with 85 individuals (8.16%). The number of recorded tree species amounted to 20 species (66.7%), while the number of shrub species amounted to 10 species (33.3%). Exotic trees or shrubs constituted 21 species (70.0%), while the rest (30.0%) were native. Threats to the trees and shrubs of Al-Aqsa Mosque included Israeli excavations under Al-Aqsa Mosque and its courtyards, Israel's use of some toxic and chemical materials to break up the soil and facilitate excavations, cutting down trees and shrubs for Israeli security purposes, burning trees and shrubs due to Israeli military actions, Israel's prevention of replanting or planting trees and shrubs, severe storms and strong winds, and diseases. If conditions permit, it is recommended to plant woody plant species that are compatible with the prevailing environmental and ecological conditions in Palestine, which add splendor to the courtyards of this great historical Islamic place in Palestine.
The spillover effect of bird functional groups on oil palm smallholdings in Indonesia DIMAS HARYO PRADANA; MUFTI PETALA PATRIA; YASMAN YASMAN; NURUL LAKSMI WINARNI
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 25 No. 12 (2024)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d251243

Abstract

Abstract. Pradana DH, Patria MP, Yasman, Winarni NL. 2024. The spillover effect of bird functional groups on oil palm smallholdings in Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 5055-5062. In Southeast Asia, oil palm plantations are a major cause of deforestation, a situation that demands urgent attention. On the other hand, oil palm is important for the economy of Southeast Asian countries. Thus, there are attempts to develop sustainable palm oil production. The spillover effect of bird functional groups on oil palm smallholdings was studied in Indonesia from 14 September to 14 October 2022 and from 23 September to 20 October 2023. Whether birds at oil palm smallholdings provide insect pest control was also examined. The point count method was used to count birds at the oil palm smallholding, ecotone, and adjacent forest remnant at four oil palm smallholdings in Riau Province and two in Central Kalimantan. A bird exclosure experiment was used to examine whether birds provide insect pest control. The difference in bird abundance of the three habitat types was analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis and Wilcoxon test as the post-hoc test. Wilcoxon test was also used to analyze the difference in herbivory rate of bird exclosure and control of oil palm leaflet seedlings. Carnivore birds showed lower abundance at the oil palm smallholdings than at the ecotone, indicating a spillover effect process. However, there was no significant difference between the herbivory rate of control and bird exclosure treatment, suggesting insect pest control service provided by birds dispersed to oil palm smallholdings could be more optimal.

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