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Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity
Published by Universitas Sebelas Maret
ISSN : 1412033X     EISSN : 20854722     DOI : https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d230231
Core Subject : Science, Agriculture,
Agriculture, Biological Sciences & Forestry Biochemistry, Genetics & Molecular Biology
The Biodiversitas Journal was first published in 2000 by the Department of Biology, FMNS, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia, then in 2006 it was co-published by the Society for Indonesian Biodiversity and that department; since 2017 it was also hosted by Smujo. From 2003-2012 it was accredited by DGHE, Ministry of Education, R.I., since 2014 was indexed by Scopus, where DOAJ and Google Scholar was indexed first.
Arjuna Subject : Biokimia, Genetika dan Biologi Molekuler - Biokimia, Genetika dan Biologi Molekuler (Lain-Lain)
Articles 6,269 Documents
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Selection and validation of stable reference genes for RT-qPCR analysis across seven Musa genomes during early flowering development KAWEE SUJIPULI; YONLADA MINGMANIT; PHITHAK INTHIMA; SRISANGWAN LAYWISADKUL; KUMROP RATANASUT; DUANGPORN PREMJET; SIRIPONG PREMJET; PONGSANAT PONGCHAROEN; WANWARANG PATHAICHINDACHOTE; MAHATTANEE PHINYO; THANITA BOONSRANGSOM
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 1 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260115

Abstract

Abstract. Sujipuli K, Mingmanit Y, Inthima P, Laywisadkul S, Ratanasut K, Premjet D, Premjet S, Pongcharoen P, Pathaichindachote W, Phinyo M, Boonsrangsom T. 2025. Biodiversitas 26: 125-135. Banana (Musa spp.) is a globally important fruit crop, with most edible varieties resulting from hybridizations between Musa acuminata (AA genome) and Musa balbisiana (BB genome). Seed formation in hybrid bananas is undesirable for both fresh consumption and processing, making it crucial to understand the genetic mechanisms controlling pollen viability and development to prevent seed set in commercial cultivation. However, comprehensive evaluations of reference genes for gene expression studies in various Musa genomic groups are still lacking. This study evaluated five candidate reference genes-ACT2, CAC, RPS4, RPL4, and SAMDC1-across seven Musa genomes using reverse transcriptase quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR). Four of these genes (CAC, RPS4, RPL4, and SAMDC1) demonstrated high primer specificity, with single PCR amplification peaks and melting curve Tm values ranging from 75.42 ± 0.03 to 82.51 ± 0.03. Expression abundance varied, with Ct values between 21.58 ± 0.26 and 24.68 ± 0.20. Using five stability analysis programs, CAC was identified as the most stable reference gene across all seven Musa genomes, making it the optimal candidate for normalizing gene expression data in banana studies. This study provides a valuable tool for enhancing the accuracy of gene expression analysis in banana breeding programs targeting seedless fruit production, thereby demonstrating the practical relevance of reference gene evaluation in banana genomic studies.
Composition and role of ants (Formicidae) as indicators of habitat conditions in different stands in urban forest, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia BUDIAMAN BUDIAMAN; SITTI NURAENI; NURHAINI NURHAINI; ANDI PRASTIYO
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 1 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260116

Abstract

Abstract. Budiaman, Nuraeni S, Nurhaini, Prastiyo A. 2025. Composition and role of ants (Formicidae) as indicators of habitat conditions in different stands in urban forest, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 26: 145-152. Urban forests provide ecological services such as air, microclimate, and environmental biodiversity, ecosystems in urban areas, assessing their quality and health through ecological indicators such as ants (Formicidae), which are very sensitive to habitat changes and serve as effective bioindicators for urban forest management sustainable. This research aims to identify the diversity and distribution of ant species and assess the potential of ants as ecological indicators of environmental conditions in urban forests. Sampling was done in three different stands: teak (Gmelina arborea), suren (Toona sureni), and mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni). The trap method uses a pitfall trap to collect ant specimens, which were then identified. Data analysis was carried out by calculating diversity, dominance, abundance, and evenness indices, as well as further analysis using correlation and principal component analysis (PCA). The results showed that there was significant variation in ant species composition among various stand types with 9 species, 6 genera, and 3 subfamilies. Species from the Camponotus genus dominate in urban forests, with Camponotus virulens dominating in teak stands, Camponotus sp. in suren stands, and Pheidole plagiaria in mahogany stands. The findings of the correlation analysis demonstrated a highly significant and positive relationship between humidity and ant dominance (0.989). This suggests that humidity is the environmental factor that exerts the greatest influence on the increased dominance of specific species. Furthermore, the very strong and positive relationship between diversity (H') and evenness (E) (0.943) indicates that ecosystems with high diversity tend to have a more even distribution of species. PCA analysis revealed a relationship between ant species composition and environmental factors such as temperature and humidity. The differences in ant species (Formicidae) composition across various stand types in the Makassar city forest are influenced by environmental conditions, such as temperature and humidity, making them suitable ecological indicators for assessing habitat quality and urban forest ecosystem health. This information supports sustainable urban forest management and biodiversity conservation efforts in urban environments, highlighting the importance and significance of ants in ecological studies.
Density and distribution mapping of invasive plant Jatropha gossypiifolia in priority savanna of Bama Resort, Baluran National Park, East Java, Indonesia Solfiyeni Solfiyeni; Adinda Nurmalasari
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 1 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260126

Abstract

Abstract. Solfiyeni, Nurmalasari A. 2025. Density and distribution mapping of invasive plant Jatropha gossypiifolia in priority savanna of Bama Resort, Baluran National Park, East Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 26: 255-264. Jatropha gossypiifolia (Bellyache bush) is one of the invasive alien plant species in the savanna of Baluran National Park, East Java, Indonesia. The invasiveness of J. gossypiifolia is the main focus of this study because this species has the potential to have a significant and far-reaching impact on the stability of the savanna ecosystem in Baluran National Park. This study aims to determine the density, distribution pattern, and distribution area of J. gossypiifolia and to analyze environmental factors that affect its presence in the savanna of Bama Resort, Baluran National Park. The survey method for distribution mapping and a single plot method to determine density and distribution pattern. Meanwhile, to analyze the relationship between environmental factors and plant density of J. gossypiifolia, Canonical Component Analysis (CCA) was used. The results showed that the density of J. gossypiifolia plants in the observation area of 400 m2 was 1.94 individuals/m2 or estimated in hectares around 19,400 individuals/ha and this plant was found growing in 15 sub-plots out of a total of 16 sub-plots observed in the field. The distribution pattern of J. gossypiifolia plants in the observation area is clustered with a Morisita Index value of 1.48. Furthermore, it is known that the distribution area of J. gossypiifolia plants in the priority savanna of Bama Resort is around 25 hectares of the total savanna area of Bama Resort of around 512 hectares. The existence of J. gossypiifolia plants is strongly influenced by the high and low light intensity. Jatropha gossypiifolia plants have spread quite widely in the priority savanna of Bama Resort, Baluran National Park. This plant is most commonly found growing in savannas close to the road, so it is necessary to routinely monitor each savanna as an effort to manage invasive alien plants in the savannas of Baluran National Park.
Butterfly (Lepidoptera) community structure in several habitat types of Tancak Maesan Forest, Bondowoso, East Java, Indonesia ABDU ROHMAN; WACHJU SUBCHAN; YUNANTA CHANDRA BUANA
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 2 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260212

Abstract

Abstract. Rohman A, Subchan W, Buana YC. 2025. Butterfly (Lepidoptera) community structure in several habitat types of Tancak Maesan Forest, Bondowoso, East Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 26: 651-661. Butterflies are one of the biota in Tancak Maesan Region, Perhutani, Forest Management Unit (FMU) Bondowoso, East Java, Indonesia. The region encompasses several habitat types. Habitat-type variations can influence butterfly diversity and dispersion. Butterfly species may be impacted by habitat loss, modification, degradation, fragmentation, and the escalation of human population and activities. Alterations in species diversity and richness composition directly influence particular regions as producers of ecological services. This study aimed to analyze the composition of the butterfly community in Tancak Maesan Region, Perhutani, FMU Bondowoso. We documented 29 species of butterflies. The safeguarded forest and waterfall ecosystems (28 species) exhibited the highest butterfly species diversity. Protected forest habitats offer critical components for butterfly survival, including ample nectar supplies for adults, host plants for larvae, and stable microclimatic conditions. Symbrenthia lilaea exhibited the most significant population density and importance value (IVI: 11.11). The Nymphalidae family exhibited the most significant species diversity relative to the other families. The safeguarded forest ecosystem exhibited the highest diversity index (H': 3.291). The residential area exhibits the highest bird evenness index (E: 1.19). The agricultural habitat exhibited the highest dominance index (D: 0.072). The abiotic parameters fall within the acceptable tolerance limit. A total of 49 plant species were identified in the vegetation study. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) of butterflies indicated that the species Tanaecia sp., Appias albina, Miletus sp., Papilio memnon, Eurema blanda, Tanaecia palguna, Udara akasa, and Oriens gola had a positive correlation with light intensity and wind speed in forest and agricultural environments. In conclusion, butterfly communities exhibit a significant relationship with diverse habitats, particularly protected forest areas, serving as ecological indicators of habitat alteration.
Metabolite profiles and biomarkers of three Selaginella (Selaginellaceae) medicinal plant species in Java Island, Indonesia AMANDA KHOIRUNISA; TATIK CHIKMAWATI; GIRI NUGROHO; MIFTAHUDIN MIFTAHUDIN
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 1 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260143

Abstract

Abstract. Khoirunisa A, Chikmawati T, Nugroho G, Miftahudin. 2025. Metabolite profiles and biomarkers of three Selaginella (Selaginellaceae) medicinal plant species in Java Island, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 26: 434-443. Metabolite content in plants is an important taxonomic marker that facilitates the realistic delimitation of species. Substantial improvement is needed for the metabolomic data of several fern species, including Selaginella, which is widely used as a medicinal plant on Java Island. Therefore, this research aimed to profile metabolite compounds in Selaginella ornata, S. plana, and S. willdenowii, and identify biomarkers for species differentiation. Metabolite content and data were determined with Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) and MZmine 3.1.0 beta software, respectively. Meanwhile, metabolite profiling, heatmap clusters, and cluster analysis were carried out using MetaboAnalyst 5.0. A total of 113 metabolites were detected in three Selaginella species observed. Based on metabolite characteristics, cluster analysis categorized all individuals into three groups, showing that individuals from the same species were more similar than others, with S. ornata metabolites appearing more similar to S. willdenowii than to S. plana. Three species had similarities in the compounds 1,3,5-benzenetricarbonitrile, 2-hydroxyisocaproic acid, 3-furoic acid, 3-methyl-2-oxovaleric acid, amentoflavone, avobenzone, ibuprofen, kojic acid, and skyrin. Metabolites only possessed by each species of S. plana, S. ornata, and S. willdenowii included 4-vinylphenol, velutin, and axahine B, respectively. This research reported for the first time several low-weight secondary metabolites with potential application as biomarkers to differentiate three species.
Development of lectin gene-based SNAP and ARMS markers as anticancer biomarkers in mutant rodent tuber (Typhonium flagelliforme) of Pekalongan accession, Indonesia ZIDNI MUFLIKHATI; Nesti F. Sianipar; Reflinur Reflinur; Anas Anas
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 1 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260142

Abstract

Abstract. Muflikhati Z, Sianipar NF, Reflinur, Anas. 2025. Development of lectin gene-based SNAP and ARMS markers as anticancer biomarkers in mutant rodent tuber (Typhonium flagelliforme) of Pekalongan accession, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 26: 424-433. Typhonium flagelliforme is a medicinal plant with potential anticancer properties. This study aimed to develop Single Nucleotide Amplified Polymorphism (SNAP) and Amplification Refractory Mutation System (ARMS) markers from the lectin gene that contributed to anticancer activity found in gamma-irradiated mutant rodent tuber plants of the Pekalongan accession. The two markers were designed for the site of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs), which were identified at approximately 500 bp in the length of the lectin gene sequence. The SNAP Lec113 primer designed from a 113 bp silent mutation in the respective gene has successfully differentiated rodent tuber mutant lines across the wild-type, determined by the specific T allele at 351 bp. Meanwhile, the ARMS Lec241 primer, designed from a 241 bp missense mutation (arginine to threonine), distinguished mutants from their wild-type by the specific G allele at 193 bp. The two developed markers demonstrated their high specificity and sensitivity in detecting genetic variations spanning lectin gene involved in anticancer biosynthesis. The SNAP marker effectively distinguished among seven mutant samples, while the ARMS marker provided consistent results across experiments. These molecular markers offer a rapid and accurate method for identifying genetic variations in rodent tuber plants, providing a significant practical benefit for the field of genetic screening and mutation impact studies. The three-primer SNAP system presents a more cost-effective option for large-scale screening compared to the four-primer ARMS system. This study provides a foundation for targeted breeding programs and genetic studies in rodent tuber, potentially accelerating the development of varieties with enhanced medicinal properties. The markers enhance genetic screening efficiency and understanding of medicinal properties in rodent tuber, significantly advancing the field of natural product therapeutics and mutation impact studies.
Species diversity and the spread of invasive fish in the Upper Bengawan Solo River, Central Java, Indonesia MUHAMMAD RAHARDIAN ADILA HAQQI; DAMAYANTI MIFTACHUS SHOLICHAH; MUHAMMAD FADHILLAH ARMANDO; MUHAMMAD FAJAR SANI; MUHAMMAD KUKUH APRIANTO; ARU DEWANGGA; CHEE KONG YAP; MUH. SULAIMAN DADIONO; AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 25 No. 10 (2024)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d251060

Abstract

Abstract. Haqqi MRA, Sholichah DM, Armando MF, Sani MF, Aprianto MK, Dewangga A, Yap CK, Dadiono MS, Setyawan AD. 2024. Species diversity and the spread of invasive fish in the Upper Bengawan Solo River, Central Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 4000-4010. Bengawan Solo is the largest and longest river in Java, Indonesia, and has a major role in supporting the life of communities around it. To understand the quality of the Bengawan Solo River environment, the study can be done from physical, chemical, and biological aspects. This research was carried out to inventory the species and the spread of invasive fish found in the Upper Bengawan Solo River, Central Java, Indonesia. This research was conducted from November to December 2023 and settled on 5 sampling stations located on main body of Bengawan Solo River, including (i) northern spillway of Gajah Mungkur Reservoir, Wonogiri, (ii) Colo Reservoir, Sukoharjo, (iii) Demangan Floodgate, Surakarta, (iv) Tlumpuk, Karanganyar, and (v) Jati, Sragen. Data collection was performed using Visual Encounter Survey (VES) and direct catch with several fishing tools, collected species identified using iNaturalist, and several books such as Jenis Ikan Introduksi dan Invasif Asing di Indonesia, Ikan Air Tawar di Ekosistem Bukit Tigapuluh, Ensiklopedia Populer Ikan Air Tawar, and Baku Saku Pengolah Data Jenis Ikan. Identification also carried out by interviewing local people at study area location to match out vernacular names. The results showed 20 species of fish from 12 families were found, dominated by Cyprinidae. The most fish captured is tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), which can be obtained from all the sampling stations. A species with high conservation status according to IUCN Red List was also found, namely Rasbora lateristriata with Vulnerable (VU) status. As many as 6 species discovered were categorized as invasive, including snakehead fish (Channa striata), red devil fish (Amphilophus citrinellus), tilapia (O. niloticus), catfish (Clarias gariepinus), sailfin catfish (Pterygoplichthys pardalis), and guppy (Poecilia reticulata). Their invasive characteristics are usually due to their predatory trait, well adaptability, and high population. The introduction of invasive fish in the Upper Bengawan Solo River was caused by several reasons, such as intentional release for stocking population, escaping fish from nearby farms, and wild releases from fish keepers.
Identification of rhizobacteria isolate from Bali Barat National Park, Indonesia and the potential as biological agents against soybean seed-borne pathogen KHAMDAN KHALIMI; IDA BAGUS GEDE PRANATAYANA; KETUT AYU YULIADHI; I WAYAN DIKSA GARGITA; I KADEK WISMA YUDHA
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 4 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260429

Abstract

Abstract. Khalimi K, Pranatayana IBG, Yuliadhi KA, Gargita IWD, Yudha IKW. 2025. Identification of rhizobacteria isolate from Bali Barat National Park, Indonesia and the potential as biological agents against soybean seed-borne pathogen. Biodiversitas 26: 1799-1806. The use of biological agents is a method of suppressing plant pathogenic fungi. Therefore, this study aimed to determine biochemical characteristics, identity, antifungal activity, and types of compounds produced by rhizobacteria isolates from Taman National Bali Barat (West Bali National Park/TNBB), Bali, Indonesia. Rhizobacteria was characterized using Microbact Biochemical Kits and molecular identification of rhizobacteria based on the 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. Antifungal compounds were analyzed using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The results showed that rhizobacteria used gelatin and arabinose as carbon sources, producing indole, acetoin, urease, and tryptophan deaminase compounds. The identity of rhizobacteria isolate TNBB is Bacillus thuringiensis. Furthermore, rhizobacteria filtrate of TNBB isolate inhibited the growth of Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus tubingensis, Aspergillus aculeatus, and Rhizopus oryzae fungi. The diameter of the inhibition zone formed was categorized as having very strong power. The filtrate of TNBB isolate rhizobacteria contained 16 antifungal compounds, namely 1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triamine, 2(1H)-pyridinone 6-hydroxy-, tridecanoic acid, N-acetyl-d-glucosamine, hexadecanoic acid, butanoic acid, pentyl ester, pentanoic acid butyl ester, pentanoic acid pentyl ester, linoleic acid, 1-naphthalene-sulfonic acid, 2-naphthalene-sulfonic acid, stearic acid, cyclotrisiloxane hexamethyl-, cyclotrisiloxane hexamethyl, 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, diisooctyl ester, and benzo[h]quinoline, 2,4-dimethyl-. The results of this study provided information that TNBB isolate rhizobacteria are suitable for use as biological agents.
Biodiversity and distribution of freshwater microalgae from the black-water ecosystem of Rungan River, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia LISWARA NENENG; KIKI LOUISA; YULIANA YULIANA; ZAHROTUN NAFISAH; DIAH RADINI NOERDJITO
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 4 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260428

Abstract

Abstract. Neneng L, Louisa K, Yuliana, Nafisah Z, Noerdjito DR. 2025. Biodiversity and distribution of freshwater microalgae from the black-water ecosystem of Rungan River, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 26: 1789-1798. The black-water ecosystem is strongly influenced by the physical appearance of peatlands, which include low pH, low Dissolved Oxygen (DO), high Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), high tannins, and low nutrients. Identifying microalgae from this extreme environment enables us to isolate species that are naturally tolerant and exhibit unique features. This research aimed to explore, identify, and find information on the distribution of freshwater microalgae species from the black-water ecosystem in Rungan River of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. This research also investigated the physicochemical parameters of the river to observe their impacts on microalgae distribution. There were 15 study sites in this research, including five main rivers (Rungan Rivers), five small rivers (Anjung, Tabatik, Panya, Karahang and Sahang), and five lakes (Humbang, Kuning, Petuk Uwah, Tahai Hulu and Rasau). Water samples were collected, and physicochemical parameters were measured and analyzed using standard protocols. The results showed that 59 species of freshwater microalgae were found in the study sites. These species belong to the classes Bacillariophyceae, Mediophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Zygnematophyceae, Charophyceae, Xantophyceae, Cyanophyceae, and Euglenoidea. Chlorella sp. and Clostridium sp. were discovered in all of study sites, while Botryococcus brownii and Spirulina sp. were only discovered at one site. The biodiversity index (H': 2.81) was included in the medium category. The highest abundance of microalgae species was found in lakes, and the lowest number was in the main rivers. The distribution of many microalgae (61%) in the black-water ecosystem was found in the pH range of 4.4-6.0. Besides, 71% of microalgae in the black-water ecosystem prefer to live at a temperature range of 28-32oC. Only Anabaena sp. was discovered at a temperature of 26-34oC. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) results showed that environmental parameters, including pH and nitrate, were the dominant factors that influenced the distribution and abundance of microalgae in this ecosystem.
Short Communication: Phytochemistry and chemical fingerprint of katuk (Sauropus androgynus) leaves extract from four varieties FACHRUDDIN FACHRUDDIN; AGIK SUPRAYOGI; NOVRIYANDI HANIF
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 2 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260230

Abstract

Abstract. Fachruddin, Suprayogi A, Hanif N. 2025. Short Communication: Phytochemistry and chemical fingerprint of katuk (Sauropus androgynus) leaves extract from four varieties. Biodiversitas 26: 824-830. Katuk (Sauropus androgynus) is a medicinal plant known to consist of four varieties based on the presence and distribution of white spots on the leaf surface. These characteristic differences affect the content of active compounds and their biological activities. This study aimed to determine the phytochemical content of crude ethanol extracts and to analyze the chemical fingerprints of the n-hexane fractions from the leaves of four S. androgynus varieties. The extraction process was conducted using ethanol to obtain the crude extract, followed by partitioning with n-hexane to separate the non-polar fractions. Qualitative phytochemical tests were performed on the crude ethanol extract, while chemical fingerprint analysis was carried out on the n-hexane fraction using LC-MS instruments. The results showed that the crude ethanol extract contained flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and steroids. LC-MS analysis revealed that all S. androgynus varieties shared similarities in their chemical fingerprint patterns, particularly the Zanzibar-Bastar varieties (six peaks on the chromatogram had the same retention times). The major compound groups found in the n-hexane fractions included triterpenoid glycosides (Zanzibar), diterpenoids (Bastar and Paris), and steroids (Kebo). These similar fingerprints and slight variations in chemical composition provide insights that are likely to produce subtly different pharmacological effects, thereby sparking further intrigue and eagerness for future research in the field of medicinal plant studies.

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