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Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity
Published by Universitas Sebelas Maret
ISSN : 1412033X     EISSN : 20854722     DOI : https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d230231
Core Subject : Science, Agriculture,
Agriculture, Biological Sciences & Forestry Biochemistry, Genetics & Molecular Biology
The Biodiversitas Journal was first published in 2000 by the Department of Biology, FMNS, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia, then in 2006 it was co-published by the Society for Indonesian Biodiversity and that department; since 2017 it was also hosted by Smujo. From 2003-2012 it was accredited by DGHE, Ministry of Education, R.I., since 2014 was indexed by Scopus, where DOAJ and Google Scholar was indexed first.
Arjuna Subject : Biokimia, Genetika dan Biologi Molekuler - Biokimia, Genetika dan Biologi Molekuler (Lain-Lain)
Articles 6,269 Documents
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Phytochemical screening, antimicrobial and antidiabetic activity of n-hexane extract of Macaranga depressa leaves KHOLIFATU ROSYIDAH; RAHMAT EKO SANJAYA; UTAMI IRAWATI; NAWWAL HIKMAH; RIZKY AULIA FITRIANI; JANNESA TRI ROSADI; IRAWAN WIJAYA KUSUMA; YADI YADI; AGNES V. SIMAMORA; ANTONIUS R. B. OLA; I GUSTI MADE NGURAH BUDIANA
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 10 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d261030

Abstract

Abstract. Rosyidah K, Sanjaya RE, Irawati U, Hikmah N, Fitriani RA, Rosadi JT, Kusuma IW, Yadi, Simamora AV, Ola ARB, Budiana IGMN. 2025. Phytochemical screening, antimicrobial and antidiabetic activity of n-hexane extract of Macaranga depressa leaves. Biodiversitas 26: 5156-5168. The Macaranga genus has been used in folk medicine to treat pathological disorders like diabetes. However, the chemical constituents and bioactivity of Macaranga depressa have never been studied. Thus, this study combined phytochemical profiling, antimicrobial evaluation, and in silico molecular docking of M. depressa. It aims to determine the phytochemical profile, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic activities of n-hexane extract of M. depressa leaves. Sample extraction was carried out by maceration method. The phytochemical profile of the plant was determined by phytochemical screening method and analyzed using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) method. Antimicrobial activity was tested in vitro using disc diffusion method. Antidiabetic activity was tested in vitro and in silico including drug similarity analysis, ADME (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion) pharmacokinetic profile, toxicity potential, and molecular docking interaction. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and tannins. GC-MS analysis identified stigmast-4-en-3-one (32.76%) and 4',6'-dimethoxy-2'-hydroxy-3-nitrochalcone (14.82%) as the major components. The extract exhibited significant antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans (18.0±0.44 mm), Escherichia coli (19.4±0.57 mm), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (23.5±1.32 mm), and Staphylococcus aureus (21.2±0.47 mm). The in vitro antidiabetic test using the ?-glucosidase enzyme showed that the n-hexane extract of M. depressa had an IC50 value of 17.561±0.471 ppm. ADMET analysis indicated that the major components followed Lipinski’s rule, exhibited drug-like properties, and were non-mutagenic. Molecular docking results showed strong interactions between the major compounds and maltase-glucoamylase (2QMJ) and PPAR-? (2Q5S). These findings suggest that the n-hexane extract of M. depressa leaves has promising antimicrobial and antidiabetic potential.
Bioactive compounds from Zanthoxylum acanthopodium phyllosphere bacteria with antifungal potential against Candida albicans ENNY NUGRAHENI; DEBIE RIZQOH; LIYA AGUSTIN UMAR; SIPRIYADI SIPRIYADI; AZELLA CHIKA FAUZIA; SHELLA SHARON
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 27 No. 1 (2026)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d270102

Abstract

Abstract. Nugraheni E, Rizqoh D, Umar LA, Sipriyadi, Fauzia AC, Sharon S. 2026. Bioactive compounds from Zanthoxylum acanthopodium phyllosphere bacteria with antifungal potential against Candida albicans. Biodiversitas 27 (1): d270102. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d270102. Zanthoxylum acanthopodium (andaliman), an endemic Rutaceae species from Samosir Island, Indonesia, with high economic and medicinal value, harbors phyllosphere bacteria that may produce antifungal metabolites. However, their bioactive compounds remain poorly characterized. This study aimed to identify bioactive compounds from the phyllosphere bacteria of Z. acanthopodium and to evaluate their antifungal potential against Candida albicans. Phyllosphere bacterial isolates were collected and evaluated against C. albicans grown in Potato Dextrose Broth (PDB) using a dilution assay to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and the ethyl acetate extracts were subsequently analyzed by GC-MS to identify constituent compounds. MIC assays showed that the crude extract inhibited C. albicans in all isolates at 100% concentration. Molecular identification based on 16S rRNA revealed these isolates as Brevundimonas sp. and Pseudomonas sp. GC-MS detected phenolic compounds, including isodiospyrin and 1-methyl-ethyl compound. Molecular docking using the C. albicans EXO-β-(1,3)-glucanase protein (PDB ID: 1EQP) demonstrated favorable binding energies (ΔG≤0), indicating spontaneous interactions. Isodiospyrin showed the strongest affinity with ΔG –8.56, while the 1-methyl-ethyl compound exhibited the best binding affinity and inhibition constant among the detected compounds. The findings confirm that phyllosphere bacteria of Z. acanthopodium exhibit antifungal activity against C. albicans. Isodiospyrin and 1-methyl-ethyl compound emerged as promising candidates for further antifungal development. Future studies should validate their efficacy through in vitro and in vivo assays, isolate specific antifungal metabolites, and optimize production for potential therapeutic applications.
Iron(II) chloride enhances the biocontrol activity of Pseudomonas fluorescens against root-knot nematodes ANKARDIANSYAH PANDU PRADANA; MOHAMMAD HOESAIN; IIS NUR ASYIAH; MUH ADIWENA; YELVI ANGELINA; DIANA PUTRI; RACHMI MASNILAH; RIFANI RUSIANA DEWI
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 8 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260850

Abstract

Abstract. Pradana AP, Hoesain M, Asyiah IN, Adiwena M, Angelina Y, Putri D, Masnilah R, Dewi RR. 2025. Iron(II) chloride enhances the biocontrol activity of Pseudomonas fluorescens against root-knot nematodes. Biodiversitas 26: 4243-4256. Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita) account for over 15% of global crop losses, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable biocontrol solutions. Microbial-based strategies, particularly those employing Pseudomonas fluorescens, present environmentally responsible alternatives to chemical nematicides while enhancing soil microbial diversity. The aim of this study was to evuluate the systematic assessment of Iron(II) Chloride (FeCl?) supplementation for improving the nematicidal efficacy of P. fluorescens. Five treatment combinations of FeCl? (0, 50, and 75 ppm) and pH (6 and 8) were evaluated in vitro. The results showed that at 24 hours, J2 mortality reached 16.8% in the 75 ppm FeCl? treatments (pH 6 and 8), significantly exceeding the control (4.4%, p<0.05). By 96 hours, FeCl?-fortified cultures achieved 55.6-56.4% J2 mortality, compared to 35.0% in the control (p<0.05). At 168 hours, maximum J2 mortality of 97.0% was recorded with 75 ppm FeCl? at pH 8, nearly three times higher than the control (p<0.01). Similarly, inhibition of egg hatching was markedly enhanced; after 168 hours, 82.8% of eggs remained unhatched in the 50 ppm FeCl? at pH 6 treatment, versus 29.8% in the control (p<0.01). Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry analysis revealed a significant increase in bioactive fatty acid derivatives, such as methyl linoleate, in FeCl?-supplemented cultures, supporting a mechanism of nematode membrane disruption. Collectively, these findings demonstrated that FeCl? supplementation significantly enhances the nematicidal activity of P. fluorescens, offering a novel and effective strategy for sustainable management of root-knot nematodes. This approach offers considerable potential for integration into environmentally compatible crop protection strategies, contributing to the development of sustainable nematode management practices in agricultural systems.
Pollen source diversity in Apis cerana beekeeping around Ir. H. Djuanda Grand Forest Park, West Java, Indonesia CIKA ASTI AMALIA; FELICIEN AMAKPE; HANANI ROSY AZZAHRA; DEA NAVITA HASANAH; VIRANTI KARTIKA PUTRI; AUREL SATYANING ATI; ALDILA DIANI RAMADAN; SYA SYA SHANIDA; JOKO KUSMORO; WAWAN HERMAWAN; INDRI WULANDARI; TEGUH HUSODO
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 11 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d261102

Abstract

Abstract. Amalia CA, Amakpe F, Azzahra HR, Hasanah DN, Putri VK, Ati AS, Ramadan AD, Shanida SS, Kusmoro J, Hermawan W, Wulandari I, Husodo T. 2025. Pollen source diversity in Apis cerana beekeeping around Ir. H. Djuanda Grand Forest Park, West Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 26: 5405-5422. Honey bees play a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem functioning through pollination, yet their foraging ecology is strongly influenced by floral resource availability across habitats and seasons. This study investigated the pollen spectrum of Apis cerana in the Ir. H. Djuanda Grand Forest Park, West Java, Indonesia, during the rainy season. Pollen traps were installed in apiaries located at the Deer Breeding Site (interior forest) and Maribaya Site (forest edge) to collect samples for palynological analysis. A total of 32 pollen types from 20 families were identified, with higher richness in the Deer Breeding Site (25 types) than in Maribaya (21 types). Family-level analyses indicated the dominance of Asteraceae, followed by Fabaceae and Lauraceae. At the species level, Tithonia diversifolia emerged as the most dominant pollen type based on the Important Value Index (IVI), accompanied by Mimosa pudica, Sphagneticola trilobata, and Persea americana. Diversity indices showed moderate pollen diversity overall (H?: 1.76), with greater heterogeneity in the interior forest (H?: 1.87) compared to the edge habitat (H?: 1.31). These results demonstrate both the ecological importance and risks of invasive species such as T. diversifolia and S. trilobata, which provide abundant forage but may threaten native flora. Conversely, native species such as Schima wallichii and Arenga pinnata highlight sustainable alternatives. Integrating native forage plants into apiary landscapes is therefore recommended to support apiculture while conserving biodiversity in tropical forest ecosystems.
Complementary detection of macroalgal diversity through visual surveys and eDNA metabarcoding in Lombok’s intertidal zone, Indonesia NURLIAH BUHARI; EDWIN JEFRI; AYU ADHITA DAMAYANTI; PARYONO PARYONO; NENIK KHOLILAH; MAYA LAKSHMI GANAPATHY
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 11 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d261123

Abstract

Abstract. Buhari N, Jefri E, Damayanti AA, Paryono, Kholilah N, Ganapathy ML. 2025. Complementary detection of macroalgal diversity through visual surveys and eDNA metabarcoding in Lombok’s intertidal zone, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 26: 5638-5646. Macroalgae are fundamental architects of tropical marine ecosystems, yet their diversity in the Indonesian archipelago, a global marine?biodiversity hotspot, remains poorly documented. This study aimed to assess macroalgal diversity in the intertidal zones around Lombok Island, Indonesia, by comparing data from morphological surveys and eDNA metabarcoding. Visual sampling was carried out along five 100 m transects, each divided into 1?×?1?m quadrats, yielding 24 species dominated by green and brown algae; red algae were observed at only a few stations. In parallel, seawater from each station was pooled, filtered, and the 18S rRNA region amplified and sequenced, uncovering an additional 21 red?algal taxa that were absent from the morphological inventory; only Palisada?sp. was detected by both methods. Visual surveys provided detailed morphological and ecological information, whereas eDNA revealed cryptic, microscopic, and morphologically indistinct taxa. The contrasting outputs reflect methodological biases and highlight the benefits of integrating traditional and molecular approaches. These findings provide the first comprehensive baseline of macroalgal diversity in Lombok and emphasize the value of combining field and eDNA surveys for long-term monitoring and conservation of coastal ecosystems, a scalable model applicable to other understudied reef systems throughout the Indo?Pacific.
Coastal medicinal plant diversity and its role in community health resilience in East Aceh, Indonesia NURSAMSU NURSAMSU; NURHAFIDHAH NURHAFIDHAH; PANDU PRABOWO WARSODIREJO; MARDUDI MARDUDI
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 12 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d261232

Abstract

Abstract. Nursamsu, Nurhafidhah, Warsodirejo PP, Mardudi. 2025. Coastal medicinal plant diversity and its role in community health resilience in East Aceh, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 26: 6335-6351. The coastal medicinal plant diversity represents an important component of community health resilience. This study documented the diversity and use patterns of medicinal plants utilized by coastal communities in East Aceh, Indonesia. Semi-structured interviews and field walks were conducted in five villages Kuala Idi, Gampong Aceh, Blang Geulumpang, Ulee Blang, and Titi Baro covering 100 informants. A total of 125 taxa from 55 families were identified, dominated by the Poaceae family. The highest Use Value (UV) was recorded for Cocos nucifera (0.92) , while the maximum Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) reached 0.98 for Oryza sativa, Piper betle, and Alpinia galanga. Sixteen disease categories were classified based on WHO ICD-10, totaling 11,456 use reports, with Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) values between 0.98-1.00, indicating strong community agreement. Leaves were the most frequently used plant part (42.4%), and drinking (60.8%) was the predominant method of administration. Diversity indices were high across all sites (Simpson 1-D = 0.9918-0.9920; Shannon H′ = 4.813-4.823), reflecting balanced species distribution and rich ethnobotanical knowledge. These findings highlight the pivotal role of coastal biodiversity in sustaining traditional medicine systems and community health. Strengthening conservation, sustainable utilization, and knowledge transmission is vital to preserving these resources for future generations.
Novel primers of Cyt b sequencing for a non-invasive genetic assessment of the Silvery Gibbon (Hylobates moloch) ADIFA RISA BAGASTA; SUNARTO SUNARTO; ARI SUSILOWATI; SURATMAN SURATMAN; DWI SENDI PRIYONO; MOHAMMAD SAIFUL MANSOR; PUGUH KARYANTO
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 27 No. 1 (2026)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d270101

Abstract

Abstract. Bagasta AR, Sunarto, Susilowati A, Suratman, Mansor MS, Priyono DS, Karyanto P. 2026. Novel primers of Cyt b sequencing for a non-invasive genetic assessment of the Silvery Gibbon (Hylobates moloch). Biodiversitas 27 (1): d270101. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d270101. Reliable primers for genetic variation assessment of the silvery gibbon (Hylobates moloch) are still unavailable. This study aims to design novel primers for the silvery gibbon's complete Cytochrome b (Cyt b) to facilitate a non-invasive genetic variation assessment. Three primer pairs targeting different regions of Cyt b were designed using Primer3Plus and validated through in-silico validation by adjusting a melting temperature (Tm) between 57-63°C and a GC content of 45-65%, and in vivo validation using Sanger sequencing. The primers were optimized for annealing temperature. The optimum annealing temperatures used in this research were 55°C for T1 and T3, and 52°C for T2, and were tested against DNA from ten gibbons' feces collected from the northwestern part of the Dieng Plateau. The gel electrophoresis results showed the amplification success, indicated by the DNA band visualization above 900 bp. Our primers successfully amplified the target, producing 625-1068 bp. De novo assembly on the obtained sequences yielded a range of fragment lengths of 1857-1950 bp and successfully assembled the complete Cyt b gene of 1140 bp. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were readily detected at sites 67, 222, 234, 271, 286, 364, 372, 378, 501, 563, 918, and 991 (12 sites) along the Cyt b gene of the ten samples of silvery gibbons. We also successfully observed five haplotypes amongst the entire sample. This success indicates that our primers effectively sequence the Cyt b gene of the silvery. Our primers perform a highly resolution ability to assess variation amongst populations, making them a valuable tool for non-invasive population genetic assessment supporting the silvery gibbon's conservation program.
Structure and ecological dominance of mangroves in Tanah Laut, South Kalimantan, Indonesia P. M. LESTARINA; D. G. BENGEN; T. PRARTONO; M. A. RIFA’I; N. P. ZAMANI
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 9 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260946

Abstract

Abstract. Lestarina PM, Bengen DG, Prartono T, Rifa’I MA, Zamani NP. 2025. Structure and ecological dominance of mangroves in Tanah Laut, South Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 26: 4775-4782. The Tanah Laut Region is one of the districts in South Kalimantan, Indonesia, with significant mangrove potential. However, like many other coastal areas in Indonesia, the mangrove forests in Tanah Laut face serious threats. Strategic development of effective conservation and management requires a comprehensive understanding of the structure of mangrove communities and their ecological conditions. Research on relative density and the Importance Value Index (IVI) provides invaluable quantitative tools for assessing the status of mangrove communities. Relative density provides an overview of a species' abundance relative to others within a community. This study focuses on identifying and characterizing existing mangrove species and evaluating their community structure using quantitative methods. The study was conducted at four selected sampling points in the Tanah Laut coastal area of South Kalimantan: Muara Asam-Asam, Pagatan Besar, and Bawah Layung, Avicennia marina (152.44% to 300 %), and Muara Kintap, Rhizophora mucronata (104.27% to 202.86%) have high importance value indices at nearly all locations. The number of trees found of all types at the research site. The most abundant type of mangrove tree was A. marina with 208 trees, followed by R. mucronata with 155 trees. Bawah Layung site has the highest number of unique species (S = 7) and has a (H?) of 1.670 and a (D) of 0.764. Pagata Besar came second with an H? index of 1.413 and a (D) of 0.688. Muara Kintap and Muara Asam-Asam have only two dominant species,Their H? index values are below 1, and their Simpson's values are below 1. This study revealed that A. marina and R. mucronata species play an important role in maintaining the stability of mangrove ecosystems in the Tanah Laut coastal area. Therefore, to support long-term ecosystem resilience, conservation and rehabilitation efforts should focus on protecting these important species and increasing community heterogeneity.
Wing cell shape variation in malaria vector species of the Anopheles barbirostris complex and closely related species (Diptera: Culicidae) SEDTHAPONG LAOJUN; ARINA ABDULLOH; ATIPORN SAEUNG; TANAWAT CHAIPHONGPACHARA
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 8 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260805

Abstract

Abstract. Laojun S, Abdulloh A, Saeung A, Chaiphongpachara T. 2025. Wing cell shape variation in malaria vector species of the Anopheles barbirostris complex and closely related species (Diptera: Culicidae). Biodiversitas 26: 3711-3721.  Several Anopheles species, including members of the An. barbirostris complex, contribute significantly to malaria transmission in Thailand. Accurate species identification is hindered by high morphological similarity, reducing the effectiveness of traditional taxonomy. This study examined wing cell shape variation in three complex members (An. dissidens, An. saeungae, An. wejchoochotei) and their sister species An. hodgkini using an outline-based geometric morphometric approach. A total of 136 specimens—An. dissidens (n = 30), An. saeungae (n = 30), An. wejchoochotei (n = 46), and An. hodgkini (n = 30)—were analyzed. Eleven wing cells were digitized, and shape variables extracted via Elliptic Fourier Analysis were evaluated with discriminant analysis to assess interspecific variation. Significant shape differences (p < 0.05) were detected for most species pairs and wing cells. Anopheles hodgkini exhibited the greatest morphological divergence, especially in the first basal, marginal, and second posterior cells. In contrast, some comparisons within the complex, such as between An. dissidens and An. wejchoochotei in the anal cell, were not significant (p > 0.05). Cross-validated reclassification accuracy ranged from 44.12% (anal cell) to 58.09% (second posterior cell). These results demonstrate that wing cell shape analysis can support discrimination among morphologically similar malaria vectors. Geometric morphometrics offers a cost-effective, rapid method for assessing morphological variation, providing valuable taxonomic resolution and aiding detection of cryptic Anopheles species. While GM alone may not achieve high classification accuracy, it generates complementary morphological evidence to molecular diagnostics. In resource-limited public health settings, GM can serve as a preliminary identification tool, enhancing vector surveillance by enabling more precise mapping of high-risk transmission zones. Accurate differentiation of Anopheles species is essential for effective malaria control, as species vary in vectorial capacity, behavior, and ecology, informing targeted and efficient intervention strategies.
Sexual dimorphic traits of the head morphology of Chinese edible frog Hoplobatrachus rugulosus in Musuan, Philippines JASMIN S. RIZALDA; MARK LLOYD G. DAPAR
Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity Vol. 26 No. 9 (2025)
Publisher : Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d260913

Abstract

Abstract. Rizalda JS, Dapar MLG. 2025. Sexual dimorphic traits of the head morphology of Chinese edible frog Hoplobatrachus rugulosus in Musuan, Philippines. Biodiversitas 26: 4396-4411. Sexual dimorphism in amphibians often reflects ecological pressures, reproductive strategies, and behavioral roles. This study investigated sex-based differences in head, snout, and tympanum shapes in Hoplobatrachus rugulosus using landmark-based geometric morphometric analysis. A total of 60 adult frogs (30 males, 30 females) were photographed, and 33 head, 7 snout, and 8 tympanum landmarks were digitized. Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA) and Relative Warp Analysis were used to assess shape variation. Statistical tests included MANOVA, Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA), and Procrustes distance calculations. Significant shape differences were found between sexes for all traits: head (p = 1.03 × 10?¹?, ?² = 0.584; Procrustes d² = 0.07), snout (p = 2.18 × 10??, ?² = 0.381; d² = 0.05), and tympanum (p = 0.0001, ?² = 0.368; d² = 0.04). DFA correctly classified 90% of individuals by head shape and 75% by snout and tympanum. Females exhibited broader, more symmetrical heads and snouts, which may support feeding efficiency and fecundity. Males displayed more irregular and asymmetrical snout and tympanum shapes, likely associated with acoustic signaling and mate competition. Fluctuating asymmetry in tympanum shape across both sexes may reflect developmental stress from environmental factors such as agrochemical use or habitat disturbance. Geometric morphometrics effectively revealed subtle shape variation overlooked by traditional methods. However, the approach requires high-quality images, technical expertise, and may not capture behavioral or physiological traits. Future research should incorporate functional data, including bite force and mating acoustics, to better understand the adaptive significance of cranial dimorphism in this species.

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