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Journal of Fisheries & Marine
Published by Universitas Airlangga
ISSN : 20855842     EISSN : 25280759     DOI : https://doi.org/10.20473/jipk.v16i1.44436
Core Subject : Science,
Biochemistry, Genetics & Molecular Biology
Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan dan Kelautan (JIPK; English: Scientific Journal of Fisheries and Marine) ISSN International Centre | ISSN:2528-0759 (Online) | ISSN: 2085-5842 (Print) JIPK is a peer-reviewed and open access biannually (April and November) that published by the Faculty of Fisheries and Marine, Universitas Airlangga. The aim of JIPK is to publish exciting, empirical research, recent science development, and high-quality science that addresses fundamental questions in fisheries and marine. JIPK only accepts manuscripts written in full English and processes submitted original script related of scope to fisheries and marine science and not being published by other publishers. We publish four categories of papers; 1) Original research papers, 2) Critical review articles, 3) Short communications, and, 4) Special Issue on applied or scientific research relevant to freshwater, brackish and marine environments. This journal gives readers the state of art of the theory and its applications of all aspects of fisheries and marine science. The scope of this journal includes, but is not limited to the research results of: Aquaculture, Fish Diseases, Marine science, Oceanography, Aquatic resources management, Fisheries product technology, Fish capture, technology, Fishery agribusiness, Fishery biotechnology/molecular genetics, Fish health management. JIPK has been indexed in Scopus, DOAJ, Sinta 1, Dimensions, Crossref, and others indexing. This journal has been accredited as a 1st Grade Scientific Journal (Sinta 1) by the Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of Indonesia since 8 December 2020.
Arjuna Subject : Biokimia, Genetika dan Biologi Molekuler - Biokimia
Articles 560 Documents
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Isolation, Characterization, and In Vitro Evaluation of Bacteriophages for Controlling the Fish Pathogen Aeromonas hydrophila Nasri Julaini; Wahjuningrum, Dinamella; Widanarni; Sukenda
Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan dan Kelautan 2026: JIPK VOLUME 18 ISSUE 1 YEAR 2026 (FEBRUARY 2026, ISSUE IN PROGRESS)
Publisher : Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Universitas Airlangga

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Graphical Abstract   Highlight Research 1. A lytic bacteriophage was successfully isolated from catfish pond water in Dramaga, Bogor, with a high density of 5.68 × 10⁹ PFU/mL. 2. Characterization revealed round to irregular plaque morphology with high clarity and diameters reaching 0.35 cm. 3. The bacteriophage exhibited high host specificity, being effective only against the A. hydrophila AH03 isolate from the AAHL collection. 4. Treatment at MOI 10 resulted in more effective inhibition of A. hydrophila growth compared to other treatments.   Abstract Aquaculture plays a vital role in global protein supply, yet its increasing production faces disease-related challenges, particularly A. hydrophila infections. This pathogen causes Motile Aeromonas Septicemia (MAS), leading to mass mortality in catfish and significant economic losses. While antibiotics have been the primary solution, their use is now restricted due to antimicrobial resistance, necessitating safe and sustainable alternatives. Phage have emerged as environmentally friendly, specific biocontrol agents to combat such infections. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of lytic phage in controlling the fish pathogen A. hydrophila through an in vitro approach. The research stages included phage isolation (density assay), characterization (plaque morphology and host range testing), and evaluation of phage against A. hydrophila (bacteriolytic efficacy assay). A completely randomized design was employed, with six treatments and three replicates, media control (K-), A. hydrophila control (K+), antibiotic control (enrofloxacin 0.1 mg/mL, KA), and phage treatments at multiplicities of infection (MOI) of 0.1, 1, and 10 (P0.1, P1, P10) for the bacteriolytic efficacy assay. Phage isolated from catfish ponds in Dramaga, Bogor, exhibited a high titer (5.68 × 10⁹ PFU/mL) and formed clear, round plaques (0.17-0.35 cm diameter). They demonstrated a narrow host range, lysing only 1 of 10 A. hydrophila isolates. In efficacy assays, phage treatment at an MOI of 10 significantly reduced bacterial density (p < 0.05) at 24 hours post infection, decreasing the OD 600 nm by 38.7% compared to the positive control. These results indicate the potential of these phage as an antibiotic alternative for controlling A. hydrophila in aquaculture.    
Structure of Mangrove Forest and Carbon Sequestration Potential in the Estuarine Region of the Somber River, Balikpapan Bay, Indonesia: A Preliminary Assessment Hamdhani, Hamdhani; Paputungan, Mohammad Sumiran; Ritonga, Irwan Ramadhan; Suyatna, Iwan
Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan dan Kelautan 2025: IN PRESS ISSUE (JUST ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT, 2025)
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Graphical Abstract   Highlight Research Nine mangrove species were identified in the Somber River estuary, dominated by Rhizophora and Avicennia. The mangrove forest exhibited an average density of 1,444 trees/ha, DBH of 13.3 cm, and canopy cover of 62.04%. Litterfall production averaged 9.28 Mg/ha/year, resulting in an estimated carbon sequestration of 47.25 Mg CO₂-eq/ha/year. Carbon sequestration correlated strongly with canopy cover and tree density, but not with DBH, with the midstream segment showing the highest values.   Abstract Mangroves are included in East Kalimantan’s emission reduction programs, but carbon absorption data remain lacking due to limited studies. In Balikpapan Bay, particularly around the Somber River estuary, information on carbon accumulation rates is still limited. This study aimed to document the species composition, tree density, diameter at breast height (DBH), and canopy cover of mangrove forests, estimate their carbon sequestration capacity, and compare sequestration rates across the upstream, midstream, and downstream sections of the Somber River in Balikpapan City, Indonesia. Nine sampling stations were established along the river to represent each segment. At each, mangrove species were identified, tree density and canopy cover measured, and litterfall collected. Carbon sequestration was then estimated from litterfall-based Net Primary Productivity (NPP). Nine species were recorded, dominated by Rhizophora and Avicennia. The forest averaged 1,444 trees/ha, DBH of 13.3 cm, and 62.04% canopy cover. Midstream sites showed the highest density (1,533 trees/ha) and canopy cover (65.7%), though not in DBH. Litterfall averaged 9.28 Mg/ha/year (0.58–18.76), corresponding to 47.25 Mg CO₂-eq/ha/year, peaking midstream. Sequestration rates did not differ significantly among segments but correlated strongly with canopy cover, density, and DBH. This study provides initial estimates of mangrove carbon uptake in the Somber River estuary near the Kariangau industrial area, offering insights for management strategies to enhance blue carbon storage, provides externally relevant estimates and a structure-to-sequestration linkage that can guide restoration targets, carbon accounting, and coastal policy in working estuaries. Further research should quantify sediment carbon accumulation and consider species-specific differences to better inform restoration efforts.
Sustainability Analysis of Marine Ecotourism Based on Small Island Resources in GITANADA Island Sea, West Lombok Regency, Indonesia Sukuryadi
Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan dan Kelautan 2025: IN PRESS ISSUE (JUST ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT, 2025)
Publisher : Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Universitas Airlangga

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Graphical Abstract   Highlight Research The multidimensional sustainability index is 54.729, which falls into the moderately sustainable category. The ecological and social dimensions are relatively good, while the economic, institutional, and technological and infrastructure dimensions are less sustainable. Strategies to enhance labor absorption and create local business opportunities in supporting the development of marine ecotourism. Strengthen supporting infrastructure are priority steps in supporting the development of marine ecotourism.   Abstract The sustainability of marine ecotourism in small island regions has been extensively studied through various dimensions, including ecological suitability, carrying capacity, community participation, and institutional and local economic strategies. However, most previous studies have addressed these dimensions separately and have not developed an integrative approach that encompasses all dimensions of sustainability within a comprehensive analytical framework. This study aims to analyze the sustainability of marine ecotourism based on small island resources through a multidimensional approach, as well as to identify the most influential sensitive indicators on the sustainability index value across five main dimensions: ecology, social, economic, institutional, and technology and infrastructure. The method approach used is Rapid Appraisal for Fisheries (RAPFISH), with the support of Multidimensional Scaling (MDS), Monte Carlo, leverage, and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) analysis. The results of the study show that the multidimensional sustainability index is 54.821, which falls into the moderately sustainable category. The ecological and social dimensions are relatively good, while the economic, institutional, and technological and infrastructure dimensions are less sustainable. Therefore, strategies to enhance labor absorption, create local business opportunities, and strengthen supporting infrastructure are priority steps in supporting the development of marine ecotourism. As a result, it is expected to strengthen the competitiveness of the destination, expand economic benefits for local communities, and create an adaptive and sustainable marine ecotourism management system.
Smart Automation of Salinity and Turbidity for Sustainable Aquaculture of Harpodon nehereus Prasetia, Abdul Muis; Gazali Salim; Linda Sartika; Mujiyanto Mujiyanto; Julian Ransangan; Ariel E San Jose; Sitti Hartinah; Retno Hartati; Rozi
Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan dan Kelautan 2025: IN PRESS ISSUE (JUST ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT, 2025)
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Graphical Abstract   Highlight Research 1. Model of growth and mortality of otek fish (Netuma thalassina (Rüppell, 1837)) in Tarakan waters, North Kalimantan. 2. Growth, mortality, and reproductive model of Bombay duck (Harpodon nehereus, Hamilton 1822) in Juata Laut waters, North Kalimantan. 3. Growth pattern and the condition index of nomei fish Harpodon nehereus captured with mini trawl in Tarakan Waters. 4. Characteristics of Model Growth and Mortality of White Shrimp (Penaeus merguiensis de Man 1888) in The Estuaria of Bengara, Regency Bulungan. 5. Preliminary study on the domestication of giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man, 1879) from North Kalimantan, Indonesia.   Abstract Automated water quality monitoring systems are urgently needed to ensure fish health and maintain aquaculture product quality. This study develops an adaptive microcontroller-based control system that automatically regulates salinity and turbidity to support the sustainable aquaculture of Harpodon nehereus. This study developed and evaluated a microcontroller-based system for automated regulation of salinity and turbidity in H. nehereus aquaculture ponds. Methods involved environmental observation, sensor calibration, system design, and field validation of a digital sensor-based water quality controller, tested in a pilot estuarine pond to keep salinity (~17‰) and turbidity (20-30 NTU) within optimal ranges. Calibration results obtained through linear regression analysis showed strong correlation with standard instruments (R² = 0.94 for salinity and R² = 0.93 for turbidity). Field trials demonstrated effective maintenance of turbidity within 22-27 NTU for 24 hours, and stepwise tests confirmed the system’s ability to track real-time salinity shifts. These results indicate that the microcontroller-based system effectively stabilises key water parameters for H. nehereus aquaculture and performs more efficiently than open systems. As one of the first integrated systems designed for automated salinity and turbidity regulation in estuarine aquaculture, it offers a practical and scalable approach to improve sustainability and ensure the food security of coastal fisheries. Future work should extend control to pH, DO, and temperature, refine calibration with predictive algorithms and wireless connectivity so that it can be used more widely in precision aquaculture with fish stocks.      
Marine Heatwaves in Eastern Tropical Indian Ocean Basin: Long-Term Trend and Climate Variability Mukti Trenggono; Sugianto, Denny Nugroho; Wirastriya , Anindya; Ismail , Muhammad Furqon Aziz; Yang , Yingyi; Wang , Dingqi
Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan dan Kelautan 2025: IN PRESS ISSUE (JUST ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT, 2025)
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Graphical Abstract Highlight Research The basin has warmed consistently since the 1980s, with rising frequency, duration, and extent of events, most severe south of Java. Seasonal weakening of wind mixing during the Southeast Monsoon and transition months prolongs events, though daily intensity remains relatively stable. El Niño and positive Indian Ocean Dipole phases trigger basin-wide thermal anomalies, underscoring large-scale climatic control over event occurrence and strength. Reduced latent heat loss, enhanced surface thermal radiation, and weaker winds limit ocean cooling, reinforcing persistent surface warming and prolonged heatwaves.   Abstract Marine heatwaves in the Eastern Tropical Indian Ocean occur when sea surface temperature remains above its historical average for several consecutive days or weeks, disrupting marine ecosystems, affecting primary productivity, and reducing fishery yields through habitat degradation and altered species distribution. Despite their growing frequency and impact, the spatial and temporal variability of these events in the region remains poorly understood. This study examined their distribution, intensity, and long-term evolution, along with their relationship to regional climate variability, using high-resolution sea surface temperature data. Detection was performed at each grid point following the method of Hobday and key metrics were calculated to describe event duration and intensity. Empirical Orthogonal Function analysis was applied to identify dominant spatial patterns and temporal modes of variability. Results showed that these marine heatwaves occur about three times annually, with more frequent and prolonged events south of Java than west of Sumatra. Most were moderate in duration and intensity, peaking at around 3.25 days per month during the monsoonal transition, while the strongest intensities appeared in the Southeast Monsoon. Over the past decade, cumulative annual intensity increased significantly, showing a positive trend of 18.88 ± 8.33 °C days per decade. The dominant spatial mode revealed intensified events south of Java, while a secondary mode indicated an increase after the early 2000s. These findings demonstrate a growing intensification of marine heatwaves in the Eastern Tropical Indian Ocean, driven by reduced ocean heat loss and enhanced surface net thermal radiation, highlighting their potential to exacerbate thermal stress on regional fisheries and marine ecosystems under ongoing climate change.  
Optimization of Secondary Metabolite Production in the Sponge Associated Bacterium Roseivirga sp. PAP.19 Using the OSMAC Approach Pradani, Andin Syamsi; Harwoko, Harwoko; Meinita, Maria Dyah Nur; Riviani, Riviani; Mettal, Ute; Riyanti
Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan dan Kelautan 2025: IN PRESS ISSUE (JUST ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT, 2025)
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Graphical Abstract  Highlight Research Compounds produced by Roseivirga PAP.19 bacteria have potential as antimicrobials. The OSMAC approach was used successfully to activate BGCs of Roseivirga PAP.19. The use of medium in bacterial culture affects the secondary metabolites produced by Roseivirga PAP.19 bacteria. Bacteria cultured in A1Bfe+C medium produced more secondary metabolites compared to the other medium. The different incubation times during culture affect the amount of secondary metabolite compounds produced.   Abstract Marine sponge-associated bacteria are a rich source of bioactive metabolites. The biochemical interaction between bacteria and sponges enables symbiotic bacteria to produce metabolites similar to those of their host. Metabolite extracts from symbiotic bacteria contain bioactive compounds with cytotoxic, antiviral, and antimicrobial properties. There is an urgent need for new antimicrobial agents due to the increasing resistance to existing drugs. This study aims to optimize the medium and incubation time of secondary metabolites produced by the symbiotic bacteria of the sponge Roseivirga sp. PAP.19. To stimulate biosynthesis of silent gene clusters, the One Strain Many Compounds (OSMAC) approach was used. Bacteria were cultured in various media and at different incubation times. This has the potential to increase the production of secondary metabolites. Secondary metabolites were analyzed using LC-HRMS. The potential of these metabolites as antimicrobial agents was subsequently evaluated. Results showed six compounds with antimicrobial potential. Notably, the A1BFe+C medium produced more bioactive compounds than the other medium, and the highest compound production occurred on day 4. These findings suggest that optimizing culture conditions using the OSMAC approach can enhance the yield of potentially valuable antimicrobial secondary metabolites from symbiotic bacteria, which may contribute to the discovery of new antimicrobial agents.
Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices on Fisheries Postharvest Losses in Lucena, Quezon Province, Philippines Tolentino, Precious Dee H; Dandee Florence B Manggao; Maria Mojena G Plasus
Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan dan Kelautan 2025: IN PRESS ISSUE (JUST ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT, 2025)
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Graphical Abstract   Highlight Research First to assess KAP on post-harvest fish loss among fisherfolks, vendors, and processors in the Philippines. Processors had higher knowledge; fisherfolks showed better attitudes and practices. Daily fish output and gender significantly influenced knowledge and practices. Recommends targeted training based on roles and gender to reduce fish loss.   Abstract Fisheries postharvest losses (PHLs) lead to significant economic and nutritional impacts, particularly in developing countries like the Philippines. Despite the availability of post-harvest facilities, losses remain high due to inadequate handling practices. This study aimed to evaluate the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of fisherfolk, vendors, and processors at the Lucena Fish Port Complex and to determine how socio-demographic factors influence these practices, in order to guide interventions that can reduce post-harvest fisheries loss. The KAP related to PHLs was assessed among fisherfolks, vendors, and processors at the Lucena Fish Port Complex (LFPC) and sociodemographic factors influencing KAP was determined. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 390 respondents using structured questionnaires. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square tests for association, Kruskal-Wallis H test with Dwass-Steel-Critchlow-Fligner (DSCF) post-hoc tests for group comparisons, and multiple linear regression to identify predictors of KAP scores. Significant group differences were found among groups. Processors had greater knowledge of PHLs, fisherfolk showed stronger attitudes toward loss reduction, while vendors displayed inconsistent practices in storage, icing, and sorting. Daily output predicted higher knowledge and practice scores, and males were more likely to follow recommended handling methods. The results suggest that targeted training programs considering stakeholder roles and gender dynamics are essential to reduce PHLs. Recommended interventions include capacity-building on hygienic handling and proper icing, improved access to affordable cold chain facilities, gender-responsive training for women vendors and processors, and awareness campaigns on the economic benefits of reducing PHLs. Future research should also investigate the extent and specific types of PHLs experienced by different stakeholders, as well as assess the effectiveness and long-term impact of targeted capacity-building interventions on improving handling practices and reducing PHLs.  
Alginate / Polyvinyl Alcohol / Bentonite Hydrogel Beads for Cu (II) Adsorption Miftakhul Ulumiah; Mochammad Amin Alamsjah; Patmawati
Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan dan Kelautan 2025: IN PRESS ISSUE (JUST ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT, 2025)
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Graphical Abstract Highlight Research Hydrogel bead based on alginate, PVA and bentonite were prepared by ionic gelation. Hydrogel bead were tested on Cu standard solution and waste water from paper industry.  Adding bentonite on hydrogel bead plays a key role for Cu removal. Hydrogel bead show selective removal on waste water containing Cu, Pb and Cr.   Abstract Heavy metal pollution is a major problem for most water areas. One way to remove heavy metal ions is through the adsorption process by using combination of alginate / polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel. Adding bentonite can make good adsorption and effective. The purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of hydrogels for adsorption of heavy metals Cu (II) in liquid waste from paper industrial. This study used a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) experimental method with 5 treatments and 3 replications. Types of treatments include control treatments and the addition of bentonite with a ratio of 0.5 - 1.25%. The best treatment will be applied to liquid waste. The results showed that hydrogel beads from alginate / polyvinyl alcohol / bentonite have significant differences between treatments on the adsorption of heavy metal Cu (II). The best treatment was the addition of 1% bentonite (P4) with an adsorption capacity of 74.43%. The results of the application on liquid waste showed the following adsorption capacity: Cr (65.13%) > Cu (60.84%) > Pb (44.47%). Suggestions that can be given for further research are the application of hydrogel beads to other heavy metals that have the potential to increase adsorption capacity, such as Cr.
Characterization of Agar Extracted from Farmed Gracilaria sp. via Different Alkaline and Temperature Treatments Roslan, Siti Noorain; Nur Atiqah Jahim; Mohd Edyazuan Azni; Sharifah Mariam Sayed Hitam; Rozyanti Mohamad; Ahmad Shoiful; Jamaluddin Fitrah Alam; Ayu Lana Nafisyah
Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan dan Kelautan 2025: IN PRESS ISSUE (JUST ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT, 2025)
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Graphical Abstract  Highlight Research 7% NaOH gave the highest agar yield (13.54%) and gel strength (49.53 g/cm²). High alkali and heat reduced phytochemical content. FTIR showed structural degradation at elevated temperatures. Nutritional profile suggests similarity to Gracilaria changii.   Abstract The growing industrial demand for agar underscores the need for efficient, sustainable extraction methods that ensure both high yield and product quality. However, optimizing key processing parameters for agar extraction from farmed Gracilaria sp. remains a challenge due to variations in species composition, cultivation environment, and extraction practices. Current production often relies on empirical or non-standardized conditions, leading to inconsistencies in gel strength, color, and purity that affect industrial applicability. This study examines the properties of agar extracted from an unidentified Gracilaria species, with characteristics closely matching Gracilaria changii. Using different NaOH concentrations (3%, 5%, 7%) and temperatures (70°C, 80°C, 90°C), the effects on agar yield, gel strength, color, water retention capacity (WRC), and structure were analyzed. The highest agar yield (13.54%) was obtained at 90°C with 7% NaOH, while the best gel strength (49.53 g/cm²) was recorded at 80°C under the same alkali concentration. FTIR confirmed polysaccharide features but revealed degradation at higher temperatures. Overall, 7% NaOH was identified as the optimal alkali concentration, balancing high yield and desirable gel properties. These findings offer valuable insights for enhancing agar extraction efficiency from Gracilaria sp. and advancing standardization in industrial agar production.  
Polyvalent formalin-killed Aeromonas hydrophila vaccine with oil adjuvant drives coordinated humoral, innate, and cytokine responses in giant gourami (Osphronemus goramy) Rozi; Wiwiek Tyasningsih; Jola Rahmahani; Eduardus Bimo Aksono; Muchammad Yunus; Mohammad Anam Al-Arif; Suryo Kuncorojakti; Daruti Dinda Nindarwi; Putri Desi Wulan Sari; Nina Nurmalia Dewi; Woro Hastuti Satyantini; Muhammad Browijoyo Santanumurti; Dita Wisudyawati; Mohammad Noor Amal Azmai; Annas Salleh; Gazali Salim; Suwarno, Suwarno
Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan dan Kelautan 2026: JIPK VOLUME 18 ISSUE 1 YEAR 2026 (FEBRUARY 2026, ISSUE IN PROGRESS)
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Graphical Abstract  Highlight Research Adjuvanted polyvalent FKC elicited the strongest and most sustained multi-arm immune response in Osphronemus goramy compared with monovalent and non-adjuvanted vaccines. The lead formulation combined high agglutinating antibody titres with enhanced NBT respiratory burst, indicating synergistic humoral–innate activation against Aeromonas hydrophila. Polyvalent vaccines did not dilute immunogenicity; instead, strain combination plus adjuvant broadened and amplified immune responsiveness. Longitudinal profiling of il-1β and ifn-γ revealed a stable pro-inflammatory/Th1-like cytokine signature uniquely associated with the adjuvanted polyvalent FKC. The integrated immunological “fingerprint” supports the adjuvanted polyvalent FKC as a rational lead candidate for motile Aeromonas septicaemia control in warm-water gourami aquaculture.   Abstract Bacterial septicaemia caused by Aeromonas hydrophila is an important constraint for giant gourami (Osphronemus goramy) culture in Southeast Asia. Inactivated whole-cell (bacterin) vaccines are widely used against bacterial diseases in aquaculture, but comparative data on monovalent versus polyvalent A. hydrophila vaccines, with and without oil-based adjuvant, remain scarce for this species. This study evaluated the safety, immunological responses, and protective efficacy of three formalin-killed cell (FKC) vaccines prepared from gourami-derived A. hydrophila isolates: a monovalent FKC (P2), a non-adjuvanted polyvalent FKC (P3), and an oil-adjuvanted polyvalent FKC (P4), using PBS (P1) as a control. Sub-adult giant gourami were vaccinated intraperitoneally and monitored for 42 days. Serum agglutinating antibody titres, nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT)-reducing activity, and splenic il-1β and ifn-γ mRNA expression were measured at multiple time points. At 21 days post-vaccination, a separate cohort was challenged intraperitoneally with virulent A. hydrophila Ah-S1, and survival was recorded for 14 days; relative percent survival (RPS) was calculated at day 14. All FKC formulations were clinically well tolerated, with only transient post-vaccination inappetence and no gross injection-site pathology. Vaccination induced clear, treatment- and time-dependent increases in agglutinating antibody titres, NBT-reducing activity, and splenic il-1β and ifn-γ transcription, with the strongest and most sustained responses in P4, intermediate responses in P3 and P2, and minimal changes in P1. Following homologous challenge, day-14 survival was 8.3% in P1, 61.7% in P2, 75.0% in P3, and 83.3% in P4, with corresponding RPS values of 58.2%, 72.7%, and 81.8%, respectively. Under these experimental conditions, the oil-adjuvanted polyvalent FKC (P4) produced the greatest enhancement of immune responses and protection against intraperitoneal A. hydrophila challenge in giant gourami. These findings support this formulation as a candidate for further vaccine development in O. goramy and highlight the need for dose optimisation, safety assessment, heterologous challenge, and field-validation studies before recommendations for large-scale use in aquaculture.

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