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MPI (Media Pharmaceutica Indonesiana)
Published by Universitas Surabaya
ISSN : 25276208     EISSN : 25279017     DOI : -
Core Subject : Health, Science,
Chemistry Health Professions Immunology & microbiology Materials Science & Nanotechnology Medicine & Pharmacology
Media Pharmaceutica Indonesiana (MPI) is a journal focusing on pharmaceutical aspects. MPI is dedicated to update and support the development of information and knowledge on pharmaceutical fields. This journal is published twice a year (June and December).
Arjuna Subject : -
Articles 162 Documents
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Secondary Metabolites of Various Indonesian Medicinal Plants as SARS-CoV-2 Inhibitors: In Silico Study Tungary, Emilia; Wahjudi, Mariana; Kok, Tjie
MPI (Media Pharmaceutica Indonesiana) Vol. 4 No. 2 (2022): DECEMBER
Publisher : Fakultas Farmasi, Universitas Surabaya

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.24123/mpi.v4i2.5255

Abstract

Corona virus disease 2019 caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection emerged in late 2019 and still become a worldwide pandemic up to this point with the drug remain unavailable. Meanwhile, Indonesia has an abundance variety of medicinal plants that are potential to be developed as inhibitors. By using the key role proteins as drug targets, namely spike glycoprotein and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) of delta variant of SARS-CoV-2 (which is known as strongly transmitted and highly virulent), we can develop inhibitors for the target proteins from potential Indonesian medicinal plants to prevent the protein interactions for viral entry and proliferation that leading to organ disfunction and death. This study aimed to identify the secondary metabolites of various Indonesian medicinal plants as SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors. The 184 ligands from nine plants were collected from IJAH webserver and their SMILES notation were collected from PubChem. Meanwhile 3D structures of spike glycoprotein (PDB ID: 6VXX) and RdRp (PDB ID: 6M71) were obtained from protein data bank (PDB). Molecular docking was conducted between ligands and the two SARS-CoV-2 proteins using Autodock Vina in PyRx with hesperidin and remdesivir as control compounds. Several potential compounds were selected for drug-likeness analysis and toxicity analysis. Results showed that lantanolic acid has the same amino acid interaction with RdRp as the control compound. It formed a hydrogen bond with Ser784 and hydrophobic bonds with Tyr32 and Ser7709. It had lower binding affinity than the control compounds, eligible as oral drug, and had LD50 of 2589 mg/kg.
Characterization of Water Kefir from Broccoli Stem Extract with Addition of Palm Sugar Nugroho, Arhadianto Adi; Christina, Felicia; Buschle-Diller, Gisela; Purwanto, Maria Goretti Marianti; Erawati, Christina Mumpuni; Dewi, Ardhia Deasy Rosita; Mukti, Yayon Pamula; Sukweenadhi, Johan
MPI (Media Pharmaceutica Indonesiana) Vol. 4 No. 2 (2022): DECEMBER
Publisher : Fakultas Farmasi, Universitas Surabaya

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.24123/mpi.v4i2.5259

Abstract

Water kefir is a fermented carbonated beverage and functional food with probiotic properties. Broccoli is an edible green plant which a rich source of vitamins A, B1, B2, B3, and C; it also contains isothiocyanate compounds that have anti-cancer and fiber for digestive system. Palm sugar is a sweetener obtained from concentrated coconut sap and is known to have a low glycaemic index. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of broccoli stem extract and palm sugar concentration on its biochemical and microbiological characteristics. Subsequently, the acceptance of the product by the panelists were evaluated through organoleptic tests. Water kefir with sugar content of 15% had the highest lactic acid, antioxidant activity, lactic acid bacteria, yeast, ethanol content, and water kefir with a concentration of 1:5 and sugar content of 15% found the highest acceptance by the panelists. Water kefir obtained in this study did not have contaminant bacteria. This product also met the codex standard.
Identification of Potential COVID-19 Targets and Pathways Derivate from Various Phenolic Compounds from Chives (Allium schoenoprasum) by Using Network Pharmacology Approach Iksen; Buana, Bayu Cakra
MPI (Media Pharmaceutica Indonesiana) Vol. 4 No. 2 (2022): DECEMBER
Publisher : Fakultas Farmasi, Universitas Surabaya

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.24123/mpi.v4i2.5272

Abstract

With the uncertainty of COVID-19 disease around the world, the discovery and development of novel treatments for COVID-19 becoming an emerging trend. Network pharmacology has been used for determining the potential targets from several diseases. This research mainly focused on the potential of Allium schoenoprasum against COVID-19 based on a network pharmacology approach. The methods consist of target identification of the compounds, target identification related to COVID-19 disease, compound-target interaction network, protein-protein interaction network and gene ontology and pathway enrichment analysis. Fifthy three main targets obtained from the compound-COVID-19 were identified as main targets from the compounds with MMP9, MPO, TLR4, MMP2, CCNB1, AURKB, PLK1, TOP2A, ALOX5, and CD38 becoming the top 10 core targets. Phenolic compounds in Allium schoenoprasum may act as anti-COVID-19 through several inflammatory and immune response pathways. Based on these results, it seems that phenolic compounds in Allium schoenoprasum might act as anti-COVID-19 via network pharmacology approaches.
Implementasi Pelayanan Telefarmasi di Apotek Sesuai Standar Pelayanan Kefarmasian Puspita, Ivonn Elsa Aulia; Wibowo, Ika Mulyono Putri; Kristianto, Franciscus Cahyo
MPI (Media Pharmaceutica Indonesiana) Vol. 4 No. 2 (2022): DECEMBER
Publisher : Fakultas Farmasi, Universitas Surabaya

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.24123/mpi.v4i2.5278

Abstract

Penelitian ini ditujukan untuk menggambarkan implementasi pelayanan telefarmasi pada pelayanan farmasi klinis di apotek yang dipandang dari perspektif apoteker pemberi layanan. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif dengan metode survey menggunakan kuesioner. Kuesioner disusun berdasarkan standar pelayanan kefarmasian di apotek, dan pelayanan farmasi klinis yang terdiri dari 7 domain. Validasi kuesioner terlebih dahulu diuji validitas rupa (face validity). Sampel penelitian terdiri dari 40 apoteker yang berpraktik dan menyediakan pelayanan telefarmasi di apotek jaringan di Surabaya dan Sidoarjo. Sejumlah 34 apoteker yang memenuhi kriteria inklusi dan eksklusi terlibat dalam penelitian ini. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pengkajian resep, dispensing dan KIE, pelayanan informasi obat, konseling, pemantauan terapi obat, home pharmacy care, dan monitoring efek samping obat selalu dan sering dilakukan oleh apoteker. Namun, dokumentasi konseling dan pemantauan terapi obat hanya dilakukan oleh 47,1% dan 55,9% responden. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa pelayanan telefarmasi pada pelayanan farmasi klinis sudah dilakukan dengan baik oleh apoteker. Telepharmacy services have become part of pharmaceutical services in community pharmacy. Based on regulations, this service must be provided in accordance with pharmaceutical service standards in the community. This study aimed to describe the implementation of telepharmacy services in the community from the perspective of practicing pharmacists. This study is a descriptive research using survey method with a questionnaire. Questionnaires were prepared based on pharmaceutical service standards in pharmacies, and clinical pharmacy services consisting of 7 domains. The validity of the questionnaire was tested for face validity. The sample of this study was consisted of 40 pharmacists who practice and provide telepharmacy services at network pharmacies in Surabaya and Sidoarjo. A total of 34 pharmacists who met the inclusion and exclusion criteria were involved in this study. The results showed that the assessment of prescriptions, dispensing and communication-information-education, drug information services, counseling, monitoring of drug therapy, home pharmacy care, and monitoring of drug side effects were always and often carried out by pharmacists. However, documentation of counseling and monitoring of drug therapy was only carried out by 47.1% and 55.9% of respondents. Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that telepharmacy in clinical pharmacy services have been carried out by pharmacist properly.
Effectiveness of Voriconazole in Treating Fungal Keratitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials Aryati, Yulia Ayu; Idrus, Elfa Ali
MPI (Media Pharmaceutica Indonesiana) Vol. 4 No. 2 (2022): DECEMBER
Publisher : Fakultas Farmasi, Universitas Surabaya

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.24123/mpi.v4i2.5284

Abstract

Antifungal intervention fails in approximately half of fungal keratitis patients, demonstrating its limitations. Voriconazole use for fungal keratitis has raised new interest because of its broad spectrum and good ocular penetration. However, its effectiveness has not been systematically evaluated. Here we try to clarify the benefits of voriconazole in fungal keratitis cases. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing vorico­nazole to placebo or other antifungal medications for fungal keratitis were searched in several databases, in­cluding PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, ClinicalTrials, and WHO-ICTRP. The primary outcome that analyzed was best spectacle-corrected vision acuity (BSCVA). The secondary outcomes were treatment success, corneal perforation or need for therapeutic penetrating keratoplasty (TPK). From 621 records, nine studies were se­lected for analysis. The results were as follows: As an initial therapy, topical natamycin outperformed vori­conazole in BSCVA (mean difference = 0.14; 95% CI 0.02 to 0.26; P =.03). Voriconazole also has a greater risk of corneal perforation or TPK than natamycin (RR=1.69; 95% CI 1.11 to 2.58; P=.02). As an adjuvant, there is no significant difference found in BSCVA, treatment success, event of corneal perforation, or need for TPK between voriconazole and the other antifungal agents (itraconazole, ketoconazole, amphotericin B, natamy­cin, and placebo). This study shows that voriconazole is less superior than natamycin in treating early infec­tions of fungal keratitis. More RCTs with larger samples are needed to evaluate voriconazole's adjuvant efficacy.
Aktivitas Sitotoksik Ekstrak Biji Alpukat (Persea americana Mill.) pada Sel Kanker Payudara dan Serviks Secara In Silico dan In Vitro Kirtishanti, Aguslina; Kesuma, Dini; C, Fadita Trisa; Tuga, Maria Claudia Dwiyanti
MPI (Media Pharmaceutica Indonesiana) Vol. 4 No. 2 (2022): DECEMBER
Publisher : Fakultas Farmasi, Universitas Surabaya

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.24123/mpi.v4i2.5296

Abstract

Kanker payudara dan servik merupakan kanker dengan jumlah terbanyak di Indonesia. Kemoterapi sebagai terapi kanker memiliki banyak efek samping, oleh karena itu diperlukan pengembangan obat antikanker terutama dari bahan alam yang efektif dan memiliki efek samping minimal. Salah satu bahan alam yang diprediksi mempunyai aktivitas antikanker adalah biji alpukat (Persea americana Mill.). Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menentukan aktivitas sitotoksik ekstrak etanol biji alpukat pada sel kanker payudara dan serviks secara in silico dan in vitro. Senyawa aktif dalam biji alpukat di docking dengan reseptor estrogen (PDB code: 3ERT) and reseptor SIRT1 (PDB code: 4I5I) menggunakan program Molegro Virtual Docker 5.5 (MVD). Aktivitas sitotoksik secara in vitro dilakukan menggunakan metode Microculture Tetrazolium Technique (MTT) pada sel kanker payudara (MCF7), sel kanker serviks (HeLa) dan sel normal (Vero). Biji alpukat berisi 10 senyawa aktif yang diprediksi mempunyai aktivitas sitotoksik. Hasil uji in silico menunjukkan bahwa epicatechin gallate mempunyai nilai rerank score paling rendah yaitu -118,397 kkal/mol pada reseptor estrogen dan -133,694 kkal/mol pada reseptor SIRT1. Aktivitas sitotoksik secara in vitro ditunjukkan dengan nilai IC50 sebesar 537,37 μg/mL (MCF7), 383,21 μg/mL (HeLa) dan 541,67 μg/mL (Vero). Dari hasil uji in vitro menyatakan bahwa ekstrak etanol biji alpukat tidak memiliki aktivitas sitotoksik pada sel kanker MCF7 dan memiliki aktivitas sitotoksik lemah pada sel HeLa. Breast and cervical cancer are cancers with the highest number in Indonesia. Chemotherapy, as one of the mainstay treatments of cancer, can cause harmful side effects; and, therefore, it is necessary to develop anticancer drug from natural ingredients with good efficacy and minimal side effects. One of the natural ingredients that is predicted to have anticancer activity is avocado seed (Persea americana Mill.). This study aimed to evaluate the in-vitro and in-silico cytotoxic activity of avocado seed extract on breast and cervical cancer cells. The active compounds in avocado seeds were docked with estrogen receptors (PDB code: 3ERT) and SIRT1 receptors (PDB code: 4I5I) using the MVD program. Cytotoxic activity in vitro was carried out using the MTT method on breast cancer cells (MCF7), cervical cancer cells (HeLa) and normal cells (Vero). Avocado seed contains 10 active compounds which are predicted to have cytotoxic activity. The findings from in-silico test showed that the “epicatechin gallate” had the lowest rerank score, i.e. -118.397 kcal/mol for the estrogen receptor and -133.694 kcal/ mol for the SIRT1 receptor. Cytotoxic activity in vitro was shown by IC50 values of 537.37 μg/mL (MCF7), 383.21 μg/mL (HeLa) and 541.67 μg/mL (Vero), respectively. The findings from in-vitro test showed that the avocado seed extract did not have cytotoxic activity on MCF7 cells and had weak cytotoxic activity on HeLa cells.
Validasi Metode Analisis Kurkuminoid dan Xantorizol pada Rimpang Temulawak (Curcuma xanthorrhiza) dengan KLT- Densitometri Saputri, Febrina Amelia; Mun'im, Abdul; Putri, Chinthia Rahadi; Aryani, Dewi
MPI (Media Pharmaceutica Indonesiana) Vol. 4 No. 2 (2022): DECEMBER
Publisher : Fakultas Farmasi, Universitas Surabaya

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.24123/mpi.v4i2.5297

Abstract

Rimpang temulawak (Curcuma xanthorrhiza) merupakan bagian tanaman yang banyak dimanfaatkan untuk pengobatan tradisional. Metabolit sekunder yang memberikan aktivitas farmakologisnya adalah senyawa kurkuminoid dan xantorizol. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk memperoleh metode analisis kurkuminoid dan xantorizol yang tervalidasi, cepat, dan sederhana. Analisis dilakukan dengan menggunakan fase diam berupa lempeng KLT silika gel 60 GF254 dan fase gerak diklorometana-kloroform (4:6). Pemindaian (scanning) densitometrik dilakukan pada 224 nm untuk xantorizol dan 425 nm untuk kurkuminoid. Metode menunjukan linieritas, akurasi, dan presisi yang baik, dengan batas deteksi kurkuminoid dan xantorizol yaitu 7,88 bpj dan 28,23 bpj dan batas kuantitasi kurkuminoid dan xantorizol yaitu 23,89 bpj dan 85,55 bpj. Kadar kurkuminoid dan xantorizol pada ekstrak rimpang temulawak adalah 4,95 ± 0,01 dan 31,30 ± 0,09 mg/g serbuk simplisia. The rhizome of temulawak (Curcuma xanthorrhiza) is a part of the plant that is widely used for traditional medicine. Secondary metabolites that provide pharmacological activity are curcuminoids and xanthorrhizol. This study aims to obtain a validated, fast, and simple analytical method for curcuminoids and xanthorrhizol. The analysis was carried out with the stationary phase TLC plates silica gel 60 GF254. The mobile phase used was dichloromethane-chloroform (4:6), with densitometric scanning at 224 nm for xanthorrhizol and 425 nm for curcuminoids. The method showed good linearity, accuracy, and precision, with curcuminoids and xanthorrhizol detection limits of 7.88 ppm and 28.23 ppm, curcuminoids and xanthorrhizol quantitation limits of 23.89 ppm and 85.55 ppm, respectively. The content of curcuminoids and xanthorrhizol in temulawak rhizome extract were 4.95 ± 0.01 and 31.30 ± 0.09 mg/g Simplicia powder, respectively.
Profil Tipe dan Ketepatan Rekomendasi Apoteker pada Kasus Vignette Dispesia di Salah Satu Kabupaten di Jawa Timur Indonesia Primulyanto, Brevmana Anugrah; Wibowo, Yosi Irawati; Setiawan, Eko; Brata, Cecilia
MPI (Media Pharmaceutica Indonesiana) Vol. 4 No. 2 (2022): DECEMBER
Publisher : Fakultas Farmasi, Universitas Surabaya

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.24123/mpi.v4i2.5331

Abstract

Dispepsia merupakan salah satu gejala yang umum dijumpai di apotek, dan oleh karena itu apoteker perlu untuk mampu memberikan rekomendasi yang tepat pada pasien dengan gejala dispepsia. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan tipe dan ketepatan rekomendasi pada dua kasus vignette dispepsia. Penelitian ini menggunakan desain potong lintang dan 42 apoteker berpartisipasi dalam penelitian ini. Instrumen penelitian menggunakan kuesioner yang berisi: (1) karakteristik apoteker dan apotek serta (2) dua kasus vignette: kasus dispepsia tanpa alarm symptoms dan kasus dispepsia karena Na diklofenak. Pengambilan data dilakukan dengan wawancara terstruktur. Analisis data dilakukan dengan inductive content analysis. Ketepatan rekomendasi dinilai berdasarkan literatur dan opini expert panel. Tipe rekomendasi yang paling sering diberikan oleh apoteker pada dua kasus di atas adalah memberikan produk untuk gejala dispepsia. Ketepatan rekomendasi pada kasus dispepsia tanpa alarm symptom dan pada kasus dispepsia karena Na diklofenak secara berturut-turut adalah 83% dan 21% dari 42 apoteker yang berpartisipasi. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa ketepatan rekomendasi bervariasi tergantung kasus. Perlu adanya peningkatan kemampuan apoteker dalam memberikan rekomendasi yang tepat, terutama pada kasus swamedikasi dispepsia yang membutuhkan rujukan ke dokter. Dyspepsia is a symptom commonly seen in community pharmacies, and therefore pharmacists need to be able to provide appropriate recommendations for patients with dyspepsia. This study aims to describe the types and the appropriateness of the recommendation provided by pharmacists when responding to two vignette cases of dyspepsia. This study was a cross sectional study, and 42 community pharmacists participated in the study. A questionnaire consisting of (1) pharmacists and pharmacy characteristics, and (2) two vignette cases of dyspepsia without alarm symptoms and dyspepsia due to Na diclofenac was developed. A structured interview was used for data collection, and an inductive content analysis was used to analyse the cases. The appropriateness of the recommendation was assessed based on the literature and expert panel opinion. The most common type of recommendation provided in the 2 vignette cases was recommending product for dyspepsia. Appropriate recommendation was provided by 83% and 21% of the 42 participating pharmacists in the case of dyspepsia without alarm symptoms and in the case of dyspepia due to Na diclofenac respectively. The appropriateness of the recommendation varied depending on the case. There is a need to improve the capability of pharmacists in providing appropriate recommendation, particularly for a dyspepsia case that needs medical referral.
The Efficacy of Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) Rind Extract in Healing Burns in Balb/C Male Mice Megahandayani, Siti Wahyuputri; Mahastari, Nur Lailiyah Yoan; Lasmono, Roisa Zakia Zahra; Jannah, Siti Nur; Affifah, Virmin Rahma; Siddiq, Hadi Barru Hakam Fajar
MPI (Media Pharmaceutica Indonesiana) Vol. 5 No. 1 (2023): JUNE
Publisher : Fakultas Farmasi, Universitas Surabaya

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.24123/mpi.v5i1.5241

Abstract

Burns are skin tissue damage that occurs as a result of direct contact with a heat source. One of the natural treatments for burns is watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) rind. Watermelon rind contains citrulline, an alkaloid that plays a role in wound healing. This study aims to explore the potential of watermelon rind to become extract gel as a burn remover in male Balb/C strain mice. This research method is a true experiment that begins with the preparation of watermelon rind extract by maceration with ethanol. Furthermore, the polyphenol, flavonoid, saponin, and alkaloid content of the extract was identified through the phytochemical screening. The next stage was the preparation of a gel with three variations of extract concentrations, namely 25%, 50%, and 75% w/v. The gels were characterized by organoleptic, pH, and spreadability. The final stage tested the gel’s activity as a burn wound healing in male Balb/C strain mice. The results showed that the extract contained saponins, polyphenols, flavonoids, and alkaloids. The spreadability test results of the gel showed that all gels met the requirements. All gels had activity against burns in male Balb/C strain mice. Thus, watermelon rind extract can be used as a medicine for burns.
Mekanisme Penghambat Sodium-Glukosa Transport Protein-2 (SGLT2-i) pada Penyakit Kardiovaskular: Sebuah Tinjauan Besmaya, Benazier Marcella; Laksono, Sidhi
MPI (Media Pharmaceutica Indonesiana) Vol. 5 No. 1 (2023): JUNE
Publisher : Fakultas Farmasi, Universitas Surabaya

Show Abstract | Download Original | Original Source | Check in Google Scholar | DOI: 10.24123/mpi.v5i1.5266

Abstract

Proteksi kardiovaskular penting sebagai salah satu target tatalaksana pasien diabetes mellitus (DM) tipe 2. Penghambat sodium-glukosa kotransporter 2 (SGLT2-i), obat antidiabetik relatif baru yang bekerja dengan cara memblokade transporter SGLT-2 di tubulus proksimal ginjal, diketahui memiliki fungsi proteksi kardiovaskular yang baik. Uji klinis CANVAS, EMPA-REG, DECLARE-TIMI 58, VERTIS-CV masing-masing menggunakan kanagliflozin, empagliflozin, dapagliflozin, dan ertugliflozin menunjukkan superioritas atau setara dengan plasebo. Penulisan studi literatur ini menggunakan telaah jurnal-jurnal penelitian menggunakan PubMed, SAGE, dan Google Scholar. Tujuan tinjauan ini adalah untuk merangkum konsep terkini mekanisme protektif SGLT2-i pada kejadian kardiovaskular dan penggunaannya pada pasien jantung dengan atau tanpa diabetes mellitus. SGLT2-i ditemukan menurunkan risiko hospitalisasi akibat gagal jantung (30%) dan penyakit ginjal (45%) pada pasien DM tipe 2. SGLT2-i juga lebih terjangkau dan menurunkan biaya perawatan rumah sakit. Karena masih relatif baru, penelitian-penelitian yang ada masih berfokus pada luaran klinis, mortalitas dan keamanan obat ini. Mekanisme kerja efek proteksi kardiovaskular obat ini kebanyakan masih berdasarkan uji preklinis. SGLT2-i memiliki banyak efek farmakologis yang terbukti bermanfaat dalam mencegah penyakit kardiovaskular terutama gagal jantung. Uji klinis menunjukkan manfaat kardioprotektif SGLT2-i bukan berasal dari efek antiglikemiknya, namun melalui mekanisme kompleks yang berhubungan dengan volume dan diuresis, penurunan beban jantung, metabolisme jantung, serta proteksi vaskular. Cardiovascular protection is one of the treatment targets for type 2 DM patients. Sodium- glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor (SGLT2-i), a relatively new antidiabetic drug that works by blocking the SGLT-2 transporter in the proximal renal tubule, is not expected to have a cardiovascular protectivefunction. CANVAS, EMPA-REG, DECLARE-TIMI 58, VERTIS-CV clinical evaluation using kanagliflozin, empagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and ertugliflozin showed the superiority or equal to the placebo. This literature study uses a review of research journals using PubMed, SAGE, and Google Scholar. This review aims to summarize the current concept of the protective mechanism of SGLT2-i in cardiovascular events and its use in cardiac patients with or without diabetes mellitus. SGLT2-i was found to reduce the risk of hospitalization due to heart failure (30%) and kidney disease (45%) in type 2 DM patients. SGLT2-i is also more affordable and lowers hospitalization costs. Because it is still relatively new, the existingstudies still focus on clinical outcomes, mortality, and safety of this drug. The mechanism of action for cardiovascular protection is mostly based on preclinical trials. SGLT2-i has many pharmacological effects that have proven beneficial in preventing cardiovascular disease, especially heart failure. Clinical trials have shown that the cardioprotective benefits of SGLT2-i are not derived from its anti-glycemic effect, but through complex mechanisms related to volume and diuresis, decreased cardiac load, cardiac metabolism, and vascular protection.

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